dasaly pockd aloms Û)

molecules. ahe phyaica stuctuts f a solid and ih pseptäs

a

ale ulatid to the aMngmnt of aboms à moleules in the

cdausifinol into tuo types bnsl n the

the olsnpmnt
atoms molces.
3hey all
aned i) Amdphous Blids alongsl
"sandon'y
wwhich haWe oo gulas stutu.
Snmpe-ubby, qloss
bymmibay sysaline solids ;
bymmüy in solido meams. the atoms a macules a

aangud in

diudtions of the cuyutal.

Suames - Al, cu,Ag,Tungo ton diamond, NacL eto.
Cydallins, solida may be singe cyalline solida t)
polyeydalinu ticd.

extndel to te wtiu
 ewomdsl to Amall yins
yains

occupiu two h mee idnicol posiho

alend cun azio, it it
ina coplat sdation (3co')

9:180

i) Plane symmety - n plane o oymmetsy a yatd

eut into two hals in uch a hat one hat becoms
the mior image a the ottul halt

pont in a stal such thut a ine draum rom any point

 13

elton -theoy of solids -

explains
shuctual, hectsical, Mayntic and Themal ynoties
of Mataial
to all sblis won
cmatal mtals)
he eltcten thudy 'n opplícab
stequs
’hio thudy has been duelepal in the mam
) ahe clasilcol e elsclon thudy i
the mtal containing tue alectvons
’ Acading to thiu tiedy,
ssponaible t clachical conductvity obeys thu
which all unutn
mechanis. hue potmtial o ecton is
laws of classical emts thu meal.

>7his thudy devolop«l by puud aend, in 1qo0

thudy,th ue eselos move witi a

Aunding to this
uomtin laws
constnt polontial obe
-thediy
hy
Atoe thedios ale toilel to explam
mouatos even Thuy ho
6ubslamcos behave% as ezcallent
cOAtain e electoon. A solution to This obum was

3) 2on thucy Bomd mucoy e

fAccading to this thuty move in a

peiodic fald pouded by thu latie a'

 Positivo ion co

dsctions

Accolding to Raude. -Loent, thudng (Assumphons)

When a 39 Lattiu point
to tom metad, the bundasies f nightoiny aloma
slighl ovalapd wik eack othe.
’ Qut doto this ovalopping volane dacions of all atoms
i e to mbe within tho mal Lattie, thec eltios
all
all calleal ue ebctions
move amolomy within th metal

Jhuc fue dscions ealtd as

an gas mooluculs confind

pamáple.
’ tue elsctios obey Pauli's elusion
dcic gilJ is opplid, uent is oced
’ when
due to th
eacios conduction eletons
’ he eloctotaic feelol dw to the pailwe ion coe is
condant and unfom hem nugliyible.
 The feces of alaction belween the ctionn and psitve
Lon coe
c¡e , th foces of pubion bdwen the lcons
nagliaibl
(asumption)
) Quomtum tue decon thedy (o) dommufdlel fhudy
Bommafild pxopd auontim fue lsction thuy
electson as a yuenlem paltile
melal howe only disuute
com howe
-’ Jhe 4e elechon In a

valueo.
engy
yonstid.
oby Pauli's etusion painóplu.
ledon oby
’ Jhe letion
j:e the com ot be mde then two eeetsons
Jwel
any vouous ensgy dwls obey
Jhe distribution e tuction in
tistico.
th Fumii- isac Qucuumsta
e ellons howe tru some rrointiad emessg within
thu metal. be couse ot th ootintal due to ionio cous
is uniftmm thsoughout thu mtal.
’ faus of aaion betM electron lattie toM. fh
tdu of sputoion betwen electsons cen be negletd.

th elachos oe toettol as wowe -like patiele

Femi - piac distoibution -
diubibtion
Acading to femi- pirac
conist of idntical, indupndnt amdl
7he systim s
indetinguiholle potlides howing holy intiud apin.
all cellad
’he patils which oby fumi - püoe staisti
et.
temions Szamplu - electom, Psos, Newti on
femion mut bey Pai's ezcluoon painiple
’ Jhe paltile 'n each stat.
Le hh cam be onu

nischonging of to poltide of tha syolim leaves the

’ antiymmatoit stat
Jubullant systm
3;ce)
n. CE)
(eCE-Ep)/KT +1)

n;CE)
+1)

Whee of potid in enu state E

:- stahsteal wiht facto
Eg- fami lhuyy wed
is indipendant t Tempaale.
El
case i) At Taoc ; E< osi

n;ce)
;ce)
 case i) At Ta0; E>E

n; ce)
9;cE)

’ At n;o meens
AU such nist statis which hane mgis atatiom
+emi e y a vacent
’ do that ll stais with engis pto Eg al 4lld
n;ce)
8; E)

T0

Sleetron ma potntal CC BLoch

puiodic potial thutm) -
A uystalline soid conast of a Jattice thich
compsed doy a lasge mo. ionde ot ugularinlweds amd
Tha conduction eleetso that can moe
Lottice
guaby thhoughat the
Let a a conduclion elcton hasa pontial
bo
enyt cV) Ju to
posihon n the lattiu, thu vaualien Pointial eme
imide th metallio cuytalo peiodic
 minmm t thu posii 1on cde sie omol
Maximum betwen the two ios
nudei

--

positive ion ce
VoL) polntial ma

polential min

(P piodi potrtial
he elsetion n spAsnted by aa wowe fumdion y
quation
cdlaponoling witi one dimeminal schiodings
2m
Jx
+
CE-V)] y() =0 ’0

vi) is Thu podis petntial

puiodi poandial cva) may be dafimd by
Louttis costant oa as
ohue L-dstance f the cllonfm any ion ce
ond a is lattia conslont (Go
piodiiy
Acoding to Bloch, wowe #equation
equaion ho thu, Aoltioy

thu aboe equatin s Known as Bloch tucion'

 whl
,(*)- puioclis yunctioy
Enp (ikx) 6 plane wowe nolution,
comid a lua hain of toms ot lengh 'L"
in one- dimunsional wilt 'N' [Link] tos in Ihu chan,
,() >V(+N,a)’ => x=k+ Na)

4om ey
Y (+ Na) > y,z+ Na)ep(ikcz+ N))
=> erpikNa) c exp ikz.

.y( Na) y) exp (ikNa)

condihon

tNA) )ezp(-ik Na)

Mullplying y

demsity
i:e the pMobabilit *o inding the elechon n adso
puicdi in nátus, when thu pótential is puiodio
Hene 4vonm ey
expCikNa) =1

2TN
Na

oham atom)
 pIsent boundaly omd Calll st Bsiloun 3one,

kaonig -Penny modal -

Aecading tots *sonig-eny modal
dhe eloions moepliodie potntial odud
by the positive ion coe, he otential the elaction valis

’ pontial mly the lcton s 3uo nead thu nuclus

Qnd maximum btwen the two adjaant nucld
hudi spalatd by thu inasatomis spaang
thu inisalonis
’ Jhe valiation the potntial the elucton. which it s
moving thsagh in th fm
walla as shom in thu dagamm,

*-a

ne dinenoional peiodio potntial

vO) =4, t The egion
 Schodimgs wave equalion te the two

2 mE
ya) = o ('.° v= 0)

2m

E CVo

42m
2

Aut ws put d 2m omd B2mcvo-E)

ea) ey com be woilm s.

rosa

the soition fr thu ey

t Bloch fom aA ikz
whuse

thhough lattie constamt 'a'

 Jhe fom o u ) depnds on the ezact natas

potondial fad
-’ As V, indeass the wdlh o the otntal box dsasA
such that vasostomt
it tusout hal solaition all posible nly fo enlyjes
gien boy th aslatien
cokay = P Snqat CosQa
Whee p- my,a
and it in the measue

bahies sheng
mE 2mEl;4
h

E=
2me

hamdsiele ploal tunition

’ he
Value of p which s
blb< 4 t|
he Saht hand Ase only lates Tha vaes w - to

as ndiall
Eslnaat cosa

’+1

21 31
5 Jhe emeyt sptum o election consut ofs
nd fobilden bom
widlt the allowe emey band muss wit nase

aa )
eny valuss (inuiasing the value of
(P/aa Sn aa +cosda)
+1

deases
wit umtasiny Ppotntiol ) widkk o the allod gon
dcasA naow and th
As P’ o, tha allowed bnd
line spectsum

bycl
iv), when po then the allelactions ale
the cystal. tr

E-K piagm
the equation P sing+ coS = cos ka it ú possible

to plot a cwe showing tha mu E as a tuntion

which s shon n duon, st is cdea fom tke
that th emeyt of thu elscton i contiuevsy nasing tom
ve0to I, tu yht hand sele o the ea. beoms tL to - t
the ralus ot k-t ond hence ds Lonlihuously oppes in het
E-K qaph at k=+ hT

tabutdey bond
alowd
bomdl
talodden bamd
allawel
bemd
iolnbomd
allowel
bomd
a a

’K
that the enuy specium
considling- alloued vegion omd falbuldn uion
om -a
15t Boillouin 3on
’ a diuontinito n enuy cald bidden gpthe

Bollfouin
’ an thu 64me way tuhs Brillauin zons ll be continuea
 Clasufaakin solids
Based on

classiid into ths tpes

ad i) conduissC metato)

and ü) semicondutds

) conduitoy cmelals) -
’ An conduds, yadanu bend ovulaps consion bomd
band.
all availae.
mo. wikin th valance and
condu cion bomd. othat alectoical
comduclin toaoduced
cmeuctioy bomd and valance bomd.

ovellap
alane acm
) naatos
bomol

conducion bond ond Voalanee bemol.

’ Valnce bend h flle t vatanes alsctron enel conductiy
electic conduc fuity is zu0
conduchon bomel

fobidden tneyy kzondgof. ciseu)

valance bcincl.

ii) soiconduilos
’ 3he conduelivi tt is ies in betwem conducton and semeontana
thu W smll ensgt boml qup . 1ev) in plsnt b<w
bemal
conductitn omd iesuattes valenee bmd.
’ semiconductts behaes A condye Tos at vey ligh, temp.
and alho behas as nsulato at louw teng.

vnclueion bmcl
ydbidden eney band (iev)
.Valance bond
Syecme mass of lction m):
’ When an dsction in a pdiodi pomtial ot lattia
am elcis fala, them tu mass

is cald cthuctiie mas (mt) aned which ia datbeunt tom

the mass (m) of he d n Un ue pae

’ahe mass Cmty dpndy the natus of th.

cuytallatia md vau wt thu delecton o motin

thu ue elehon 'n ths Lattie
elachon of chaye 'e' aml maycm
moving inside ystal latu of elsctis tuld tE )
Jhe electoic t e on th alachon F=eE
but F = m*a

m'a =eE
accelalation a = mt

as a wOwe peket,
the
velocity (y) ccispondin t the
the polticde velocity
Com de wxitten
dw 2TFdu
k dk

h dk
dk
Gut accdaroto a:d
st

dk
Aevidiny multiplying wit dk to aigkt side egy i dk dt
 orsut foam ond split
and
l atom hss fabla mout outa the dash. bought
ale aloms kdamtiad uwo when Jves. enel shap diucat
hawe ond borund digitly allsdhns
l thu tom, dn
an
bon
-kol
diasam sham
in os blw graph he
E om
enda dap nd tuntion
k¢ acostant,
s it not s
piodle electson
au in movny o masso th Jhus
dk
h F
dpm t t
JK
omd Pnk Snce
 20
ale
Bauht togethe moe anes ae ftmed
and toi a sotid ofN' atoms, each of the enydents of an
atoms

(
Er
’ electsos all
oCUpy th owes emy bomos

1) valence bomd
shu elshons in fha oulmost shell cabit) au calld
vale nue elcbios. thu Jbamd f8mud by a suiu of ennesy Aves
containing the valene delos is kmon as walene oomdl
’ Valene bamd may also Je finel s bomd which is a

occupied by the valene elcton

’ The bomd may be potiay complutihy iadup
depnting thu natuu or tha. matuial
valene elscbons aL JU6pomibl toi ehaticol ,
hesnal. md
ophcal pOpatis ot 60liels
) condulion band:
he net hihu pumittd komel is tha conduction
ond. this bome may be emmpy postally lsd
’ dn conducion bamdl thu eletos can moe

empy.
’ Valence land
conduction bo botn ol callud as
Allawed enut bans
) fabiddam Enutgy bond opi
band conducion and valene bom all
1Bott tt
Koon a tobidden
spolad by a gop Knoon p Gn tabidden dmd
’ his band colciw tomad by
above Top ofthe valone bond and elow conductioy bomd.
ths and
-’ ho elsction com eist in
whu
when on elsction in hu valnu bomd obsubs enough eny
andl

conduction band
+ conducion bom cempy (ou poltialy ls)
4abiddun enst gop
valena band.