Rational and Radical

Functions
College Algebra
 Rational Function

A rational function is a function that can be written as the quotient of two

polynomial functions 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥)

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑎) 𝑥 ) + 𝑎)+, 𝑥 )+, +--- +𝑎, 𝑥 + 𝑎.

𝑓 𝑥 = = 0 0+,
, 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑏0 𝑥 + 𝑏0+, 𝑥 +--- +𝑏, 𝑥 + 𝑏.

The domain of a rational function includes all real numbers except those
that cause the denominator to equal zero.
 The Graphs of Toolkit Rational Functions
Several things are apparent if we
,
examine the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
4

1. On the left branch of the graph,

the curve approaches the 𝑥-axis
(𝑦 = 0) 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −∞.
2. As the graph approaches 𝑥 = 0
from the left, the curve drops, but
as we approach zero from the
right, the curve rises.
3. Finally, on the right branch of the
graph, the curves approaches the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑦 = 0) 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ∞.
 Arrow Notation

Arrow Notation is used to show that 𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) is approaching a particular

value.
Symbol Meaning
𝑥 → 𝑎+ 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left (𝑥 < 𝑎 but close to 𝑎)
𝑥 → 𝑎= 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right (𝑥 > 𝑎 but close to 𝑎)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 approaches infinity (x increases without bound)
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 approaches negative infinity (𝑥 decreases without bound)
𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ the output approaches infinity (the output increases without bound)
the output approaches negative infinity (the output decreases without
𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
bound)
𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑎 the output approaches a
 Vertical Asymptote
A vertical asymptote of a graph is a vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 where the graph
tends toward positive or negative infinity as the inputs approach 𝑎.

We write:
As 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑓 𝑥 → ∞, or
As 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞

,
The local behavior of 𝑓 𝑥 = at 𝑥 = 0 is:
4
As 𝑥 → 0+ , 𝑓 𝑥 → −∞ and
As 𝑥 → 0= , 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞
 Desmos Interactive

Topic: domain and its effect on vertical asymptotes

[Link]
 Horizontal Asymptote
A horizontal asymptote of a graph is a horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏 where the
graph approaches the line as the inputs increase or decrease without bound.

We write:
As 𝑥 → ∞ or 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑏

,
The end behavior of 𝑓 𝑥 = is:
4
As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → 0
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → 0
 Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

The horizontal asymptote of a rational function can be determined by

looking at the degrees of the numerator and denominator.
• Degree of numerator is less than degree of denominator:
horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 0
• Degree of numerator is greater than degree of denominator by one:
no horizontal asymptote; slant asymptote
• Degree of numerator is equal to degree of denominator:
horizontal asymptote at ratio of leading coefficients
 Removable Discontinuities

A removable discontinuity occurs in the graph of a rational function

at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if 𝑎 is a zero for a factor in the denominator that is common with a
factor in the numerator.
4 ? +,
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 =
4 ? +@4+A
Factor the function as
(4=,)(4+,)
𝑓 𝑥 =
(4=,)(4+A)

The common factor 𝑥 + 1 produces

a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = −1,
shown as a hole in the graph.
 Intercepts of Rational Functions

A rational function will have a 𝑦-intercept when the input is zero, if the
function is defined at zero.
Likewise, a rational function will have 𝑥-intercepts at the inputs that cause
the output to be zero—when the numerator of the rational function is equal
to zero.
(4+@)(4=A)
Example: Find the intercepts of 𝑓 𝑥 =
(4+,)(4=@)(4+C)

(+@)(A) A A
𝑓 0 = = − , so the 𝑦-intercept is at 0, −
(+,)(@)(+C) C C

𝑓 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = −3, so the 𝑥-intercepts are at (2,0) and (−3,0)

 Graphing Rational Functions

1. Evaluate the function at 0 to find the 𝑦-intercept

2. Factor the numerator and denominator
3. For factors in the numerator not common to the denominator, determine
where each factor of the numerator is zero to find the 𝑥-intercepts
4. Find the multiplicities of the 𝑥-intercepts to determine the behavior of
the graph at those points
5. For factors in the denominator, note the multiplicities of the zeros to
determine the local behavior. For those factors not common to the
numerator, find the vertical asymptotes by setting those factors equal to
zero and then solve
 Graphing Rational Functions (cont.)

6. For factors in the denominator common to factors in the numerator, find

the removable discontinuities by setting those factors equal to 0 and
then solve
7. Compare the degrees of the numerator and the denominator to
determine the horizontal or slant asymptotes
8. Graph
Writing Rational Functions from Intercepts & Asymptotes

If a rational function has 𝑥-intercepts at 𝑥 = 𝑥, , 𝑥@ , … , 𝑥G vertical

asymptotes at 𝑥 = 𝑣, , 𝑣@ , … , 𝑣I and no 𝑥J =any 𝑣K then the function can be
written in the form:

(𝑥 − 𝑥, ))L (𝑥 − 𝑥@ ))? --- (𝑥 − 𝑥G ))M

𝑓 𝑥 =𝑎
(𝑥 − 𝑣, )0L (𝑥 − 𝑣@ )0? --- (𝑥 − 𝑣I )0M

where the powers 𝑝J or 𝑞J on each factor can be determined by the behavior

of the graph at the corresponding intercept or asymptote, and the stretch
factor 𝑎 can be determined given a value of the function other than the 𝑥-
intercept or by the horizontal asymptote if it is nonzero.
 Writing Rational Functions from Their Graphs

Given a graph of a rational function, write the function.

1. Determine the factors of the numerator. Examine the behavior of the
graph at the 𝑥-intercepts to determine the zeroes and their multiplicities.
(This is easy to do when finding the “simplest” function with small
multiplicities—such as 1 or 3—but may be difficult for larger
multiplicities—such as 5 or 7)
2. Determine the factors of the denominator. Examine the behavior on both
sides of each vertical asymptote to determine the factors and their
powers.
3. Use any clear point on the graph to find the stretch factor.
 Inverse Polynomial Functions

Two functions, 𝑓 and 𝑔, are inverses of one another if for all 𝑥 in the domain
of 𝑓 and 𝑔.
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑥

Given a polynomial function, find its inverse function by restricting

the domain in such a way that the new function is one-to-one:
1. Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦
2. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦
3. Solve for 𝑦, and rename the function 𝑓 +, (𝑥)
 Restricting the Domain
If a function is not one-to-one, it cannot have an inverse. If we restrict the
domain of the function so that it becomes one-to-one, thus creating a new
function, this new function will have an inverse.
To Restrict the Domain:
1. Restrict the domain by determining a domain on which the original
function is one-to-one
2. Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦
3. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦
4. Solve for 𝑦, and rename the function or pair of functions 𝑓 +, (𝑥)
5. Revise the formula for 𝑓 − 1(𝑥) by ensuring that the outputs of the inverse
function correspond to the restricted domain of the original function
 Inverse of a Radical Function

Given a radical function, find its inverse:

1. Determine the range of the original function
2. Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦, then solve for 𝑥
3. If necessary, restrict the domain of the inverse function to the range of
the original function
Example: Restrict the domain and find the inverse of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 4
Solution: Range is 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦 and interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4 → 𝑥 = 𝑦−4
𝑥 @ = y − 4, or 𝑦 = 𝑥 @ + 4. Therefore, 𝑓 +, 𝑥 = 𝑥 @ + 4, 𝑥 ≥ 0
 Direct Variation

If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by an equation of the form

𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 G

then we say that the relationship is direct variation and 𝑦 varies

directly with the 𝑛th power of 𝑥. In direct variation relationships, there is a
W
nonzero constant ratio 𝑘 = M, where 𝑘 is called the constant of variation,
4
which help defines the relationship between the variables.
 Inverse Variation

If x and y are related by an equation of the form

𝑘
𝑦= G
𝑥

where 𝑘 is a nonzero constant, then we say that 𝑦 varies inversely with

the 𝑛th power of 𝑥. In inversely proportional relationships, or inverse
variations, there is a constant multiple 𝑘 = 𝑥 G 𝑦
 Joint Variation

Joint variation occurs when a variable varies directly or inversely with

multiple variables

For instance, if 𝑥 varies directly with both 𝑦 and z, we have 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦𝑧

YW
If 𝑥 varies directly with 𝑦 and inversely with 𝑧, we have 𝑥 =
Z

Notice that we only use one constant in a joint variation equation

 Quick Review

• What is arrow notation used to indicate?

• Where would you find vertical asymptotes on the graph of a rational
function?
• What is a removable discontinuity?
• What are the steps in graphing a rational function?
• How do you find the inverse of a polynomial function?
• What is the inverse of a quadratic function?
• What is the relationship when one quantity is a constant divided by
another quantity?