Fire Safety in Buildings

BCV306D
2.1 Urban Planning

Fire safety is a critical consideration in urban planning, influencing the design, layout, and
regulations of communities. Here are key aspects to consider:

 Residential areas should be adequately separated from industrial zones that may involve
flammable materials.

 Fires should not initiate and if it initiate it should not spread – Functional planning

 Designing fire safety into residential, public, commercial, utility and infrastructure
facilities shall be made on the basis of certain laws and regulations and accepted
standards in the field of fire protection

 Higher density areas require stricter fire safety measures, including wider streets for
emergency access.

 To prevent spread of fire from one building to the adjacent building, it is necessary to
determine the proper distance between them

 The spread of fire to adjacent building is triggered by many factors, including the size of
the openings in the walls of adjacent facilities, height and length of the object

 Design streets wide enough for fire trucks and ensure multiple access routes to
neighborhoods.

 Promote energy-efficient building designs that reduce the likelihood of fires.

 Utilize smart technology for early detection and alerts in high-risk areas.

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According National Building Code

 Classification based on the occupancy

Fire Zones

Number of fire zones depends on the

• Existing layout

• Types of building construction

• Classification of existing buildings based on occupancy • Expected future development

of city

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The building should be positioned as to provide an adequate width of the road, radius of curve
and firm ground for parking lot for fire vehicles.

Regulation for technical provisions for fire apparatus

• Fire station should be located in such a way that it should be easily accessible to all
industrial, business, warehouses and residential areas

• Fire attendants should reach the spot within 5mins in urban areas and 12mins in rural
areas

• Should be located within the radius of 2 to 3km

• Fire apparatus must comply with national and local fire codes

• Guidelines for the disposal of hazardous materials (e.g., foams and chemicals) used in
firefighting.

• Regulation for technical provisions for fire apparatus

Advisory Committee Guidelines

 One fire station per four square miles area

 Response time less than 5 to 10mins in peak time

 Major road with minimum right of way of 30 to 45m

2.2 Fire Escape

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 A fire escape is a special kind of emergency exit, usually mounted to the outside of a
building or occasionally inside but separate from the main areas of the building.

 Fire escapes are most often found on multiple-story residential buildings, such as
apartment buildings.

 Very important aspect of fire safety for all new construction in urban areas; more
recently, however, they have fallen out of common use.

 Mainly due to improved building codes incorporating fire detectors, technologically

advanced fire fighting equipment, which includes better communications and the reach of
fire fighting ladder trucks, and more importantly fire sprinklers.

 An exit may be a doorway; corridor; passageway(s) to an internal staircase, or external

staircase, or to a Verandah or terrace(s), which have access to the street, or to the roof of
a building or a refuge area.

 A exit may also include a horizontal exit leading to an adjoining building at the same
level.

 Lifts and escalators shall not be considered as exits.

 Every exit, exit access or exit discharge shall be continuously maintained free of all
obstructions or impediments to full use in the case of fire or other emergency.

There must be at least one escape route from

 The main entrance door of every flat or maisonette

 The door of every communal room  From every plant room.

An escape route must lead to a place of safety

 Directly

 By way of a protected zone

 By way of an access deck or access balcony

 Escaping with elevators.

 Escaping through staircases.

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 Rescuing people by firemen and rescue services.

 Rescuing with a telescopic ladder.

 Rescuing people through the windows.

 Emergency escaping with the 'rescue hose'

Four distinct Stages:

 Stage 1 - Escape from the room or area of fire origin.

 Stage 2 - Escape from the compartment of origin via the circulation route to a protected
stairway or an adjoining compartment offering refuge.

 Stage 3 - Escape from the floor of origin to the ground level.

 Stage 4 - Escape at ground level away from Building.

Time of evacuation:

 Class 'A' construction - 3 minutes

 Class 'B' construction - 2.5 minutes

 Class 'C' construction - 2 minutes

Capacity of Exit

 The unit of exit width, used to measure the capacity of any exit, shall be 500 mm.

 A clear width of 250 mm shall be counted as an additional half unit.

 Clear widths less than 250 mm shall not be counted for exit width.

Calculation of Exit Widths

U = N / (40 x T)

Where: -

 U = number of units required;

 N = number of occupants:

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 40 = standard rate of flow - constant;

 T= Flow time (i.e. 3 mins for Class 'A', 2.5 mins for Class 'B' and 2 mins for Class 'C')

Calculation of Minimum Number of Exits

E=U/4+1

 E = number of exits

 U = number of units of exit width (from exit width formula);

 4 = size of largest exit permitted.

 1 added to ensure there would always be at least one unit.

tp + ta + trs ≤ tu

Where

tp = time of initiation to perception, ta =

perception to start of escape action trs = time

from action to reach safe place, tu = time from

initiation to Untenable condition

Refuge Area

 A refuge area of a building is a separate space designated in the high-rise buildings where
the residents can seek shelter if a fire breaks out or in case of any other emergency.

 This can be a temporary shelter for the building residents at times of emergencies and can
be used by the Fire Brigade Departments or any other organization dealing with a fire
breakout or any other crisis.

Rules for Refuge Area

 According to the National Building Code, the builder should provide a dedicated refuge
area at every seventh floor or after the first 24 meters in a high-rise

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 The real estate builder should necessarily construct a very clear passage that leads to a
refuge area of a building

 Staircase or lift would never open in the refuge area, and this shall be kept reserved only
for emergencies.

 The refuge area should never be used for community get-togethers.

 The entry door to a refuge area of a high-rise building should only be reserved for
emergencies.

 Society needs to clean the refuge area of a building once a week mandatorily.

FSI and refuge area

• Building codes provide clear guidelines about the floor area calculation for refuge areas.

• According to the law, the refuge area must be limited to a maximum of 4% of the liveable
floor area

• If the refuge area is more than the 4% limit, the space will be calculated under FSI norms.

Alternate refuge areas

 If the high-rise has a height of more than 70 metres or have more than 24 storeys, there is
a provision for alternate refuge area.

 According to the law, the alternate refuge area can be specified as reinforced concrete
cantilever projections at the alternate mid-landing level of staircase.

 However, the minimum width for such area should be three metres and area should be 10
sq metres for residential buildings and 15 sq metres for commercial high-rises.

 Apart from this, the builder should construct a clear passage to the refuge area, with signs
mentioned everywhere, painted in luminous paint.

 No lift or staircase should open in such areas, as it shall be kept reserved for occupants as
temporary shelter, in case of an emergency.

2.3 Internal Planning

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 Fire dampers are passive fire protection products used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) ducts to prevent the spread of fire inside the ductwork through fire-
resistance rated walls and floors.

 When a rise in temperature occurs, the fire damper closes, usually activated by a thermal
element which melts at temperatures higher than ambient but low enough to indicate the
presence of a fire, allowing springs to close the damper blades.

 Fire dampers can also close following receipt of an electrical signal from a fire alarm
system utilizing detectors remote from the damper, indicating the sensing of heat or
smoke in the building occupied spaces or in the HVAC duct system.

2.4 Fire Detection

 Fire detectors are available for residential, commercial, and industrial use.

 There are a number of different types of detectors available, including smoke, flame,
heat, and gas detectors.

Fire detection and protection system is required for the following reasons:

 To detect fire in the area during the initial stage.

 To alert occupants, so that they escape the building safely.

 Summon trained personnel to take charge of controlling the fire as quickly as possible.

 To initiate automatic fire control and suppression system.

 To support and supervise the fire control and suppression system.

Ionization Smoke Detector

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 Ionization smoke detectors are usually found in commercial kitchens and restaurants.

 They activate when there's smoke present in the air.

 The detector has two metal plates inside, which have a constant electric current that flows
back and forth.

 Once smoke enters the chamber, the current will no longer flow and the alarm will sound.

Advantages

Quick Response to Fast-Flaming Fires

Generally, ionization smoke detectors are less expensive than photoelectric models.

They are commonly found in homes and are typically easy to install.

Photoelectric Smoke Detector

 Photoelectric detectors are great for detecting small fires.

 They are similar to ionization detectors, but instead of using an electric current, they use a
beam of light to detect smoke.

 When smoke enters the chamber on the photoelectric detector, then it will interfere with
the light and the alarm will go off.

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ADVANTAGES

Fast Response to Slow-Smoldering Fires

Less Prone to False Alarms

Many modern units come with self-check features that alert users to low battery or
malfunctioning sensors

Combination of Ionization & Photoelectric Smoke Detector

 A smoke detector that senses both ionization and photoelectric smoke is the best way to
arm your building.

 This detector combines both the ionization and photoelectric detectors to work as one unit.

 When there's smoke in the air, it will disrupt both the beam of light and electric current,
which will cause the alarm to sound.

 The best thing about this detector is it works as a 2-in-1 system, however it won't be able
to detect heat.

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Heat Detector

 These can detect an increase in temperature and are insensitive to smoke.

 Heat detectors detect the presence of heat and an increase in air temperature.

 These detectors have few false alarms but, they take longer to identify a fire than a smoke
detector.

 They are ideal in situations where smoke detectors may cause false alarms such as steamy,
humid, or dusty environments and therefore best suited for kitchens, garages, and lofts.

Flame Detector

 Flame detectors are primarily intended to protect areas where anticipated fires will develop
quickly

 Flame detector optically senses radiation given off by flames or glowing members.

Gas Detector

 Gas detectors operate by sensing gases produced by a fire.

 The presence of certain gases, or aerosols, causes a reduction in the surface resistance of
the sensor, resulting in an increased current flow that is used to trigger an alarm.  This
device will only detect fires that burn with incomplete combustion

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Fire Suppression

 A fire suppression system is any product designed to stop a fire from spreading.

 It gets the name suppression system as it aims to hold back the fire and the damage it may
cause.

 Preventing the fire from spreading mitigates losses and allows time for emergency
personnel to respond.

 One example of a fire suppression system is a fire sprinkler system.

Types

 Water-Based Fire Suppression Systems

 Chemical Foam Suppression Systems

 Pneumatic Heat Detection Tube

 Pressurized Gas System

 Foam Deluge Systems

WATER TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Water expelling fire extinguishers have water as an extinguishing agent which is released
in the form of a jet by means of gas pressure in the upper part of the container. The gas
pressure may be induced by chemical reaction or by mechanical means. Water expelling
fire extinguishers is as shown in figure, are used mainly in Class ‘A’ fire, water when
applied to burning material is converted to steam which reduces the percentage of
available oxygen. Water expelling type extinguishers should not be used on fires
involving electrical equipment without de- energing them.

The various types of water expelling extinguishers are:

i. Soda acid type.

ii. Gas pressure activated type.
iii. Constant air pressure type.

SODA ACID EXTINGUISHER

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The operational instructions given on the body of the extinguisher should be read carefully .It
should be ascertained whether it is of upright of turnover type. To operate the extinguisher,
remove the cap and strike the plunger, direct the jet emerging from the nozzle on the fire.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

When the plunger is struck, it breaks the acid phial (bottle).The sulphuric acid and sodium
bicarbonate solution react together to release CO2. The CO2 generated creates pressure which
forces the water out of extinguisher. The CO2 acts only as a propellant and the water
extinguishes the fire by cooling effect.

Gas/Clean Agent Suppression Systems (Pressurized Gas system)

 This type of suppression system has nitrogen stored in a liquid form and is kept under
pressure.
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 A certain type of chemical called the FM200 chemical, reacts with the fire and
extinguishes it.

 This type of suppression system is good for small places that can be damaged if water is
used to put out the fire.

Water Sprinkler Suppression Systems

 This is the most common type of fire extinguishing system that is being used all around
the world.

 It can either be manual, wherein the suppressors need to be turned on manually when
there is fire, or automatic, wherein it turns on once it comes in contact with smoke or
heat.

Chemical Foam Suppression Systems

 This type of system utilizes the chemicals of potassium carbonate.

 A safe chemical to extinguish fire near edible items.

 That’s why this chemical foam suppression system is explicitly used in commercial
kitchens.

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 When fire takes place, these nozzles release a water-based chemical foam to put out the
fire.

 Chemical foam system could either be triggered by heat or by manual switch.

Pneumatic Heat Detection Tube

 Fire extinguishers are common fire suppression devices, but they are manual use.

 The pneumatic heat detection tube is an extinguisher with a fire detection system.

 Once the temperature reaches a certain level, it blows a small hole in the pipe, and the
extinguisher foam puts out the fire.

 This is an inexpensive method and easily installed, but it’s only effective on small fires.
It’s also small and easily transported to another location.

Foam Deluge Systems

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 A foam deluge system is used in areas where water suppression isn’t possible such as
transformers and oil tanks.

 When a fire is detected, water mixes with the foam to expand it and fire.

 This is perfect for outside areas, but it does create a large mess that requires clean-up.

2.5 Introduction to Lift

• The lift is a type of vertical transport equipment that efficiently moves people or goods
between floors (levels, decks) of a building, vessel or other structure.

• Lifts are generally powered by electric motors that either drive cables, hoist, or pump
hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like a jack.

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Characteristics of Lifts

 Lift needed for the building more than G+4 storey or 15 m height.

 Installation must be in accordance with the regulation in NBC

 Suitable speed 100-150ft/min. Too fast will result in a nervous breakdown to the user.
If too slow will cause lack of function.

 Lift should have a good system, quiet equipment, smooth journey, good condition and
should be safe at every moment.

 Lift should have minimum waiting time at any level.

 The button panel should be clear and easily reached at appropriate level.

 It should have complete instructions and decorative lighting and comfortable.

 The door movement should be quiet and fast.

Lift Drive Systems

 Traction Lifts

Principle: see-saw

•The ropes are attached to the elevator car, looped around a sheave &connected to an electric
motor.

when the motor turns one way, the sheave raises the elevator; when the motor turns the other
way, the sheave lowers the elevator.

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•Typically, the sheave, the motor and the control system are all housed in a machine room above
the elevator shaft.

•The ropes that lift the car are also connected to a counterweight, which hangs on the other side
of the sheave.

Types of Lift

 Passenger lift

A lift designed for carrying passengers. It can go up to 40 m and even more.

 Goods lift

A lift designed primarily for the movement of goods rather than passengers. However, it
may carry an attendant as well.

 Service lift

 A lift with a car exclusively used for carrying materials.

 Typically, these do not carry any person.

 Moreover, it has a total inside height of 1.25 m and a maximum capacity of 250 kg.
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 Hospital lift

 A lift is installed in a hospital or clinic.

 Such lifts are designed to accommodate one bed or stretcher along with its depth, with
sufficient space to carry attendants and a lift operator.

 Platform lift

Generally used in low-rise buildings by wheelchair users. The platform lift goes up to 12 m.

 Glass lift

 Mostly used in hotels and places that need aesthetic lifts.

 The glass lift is a stylish alternative to a passenger lift.

 Trolley lift

The trolley lift carries larger goods on roll cages and trolleys.

 Stair lift

Mostly used in homes for individuals in wheelchairs.

 Fire Fighting lifts

 The firefighting lift offers additional protection against fire.

 A firefighting lift is needed in a building with more than 18 meters above or 10 meters
below the fire service vehicle access level.

2.6 Design of Lift Systems

For design of lifts factors to be considered are - 1.

Population or no. of people who require lift service.

2. Handling capacity or maximum flow rate required by the people.

3. Interval or quality of service required.

Population or no. of people who require lift service.

• Population is calculated based on the occupancy type of the building (sqm)

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Peak Demand of the building

• The key factors on which the demand depends are population, arrival rate, and pattern.

• In some cases, the time of arrival is fixed (offices, etc.) whereas, in others, the time of
departure is fixed (theaters, etc.).

Capacity

 When choosing a specific car, a choice has to be made as to whether the car is selected as
a deep car or a wide car as per the lift dimensions.

 Generally, wide cars are preferable to deep cars as they provide better passenger transfer
and achieve higher car capacities.

 Deep cars, on the other hand, are suitable for wheelchair users. Similarly, open cars serve
the dual purpose of carrying passengers as well as for the movement of goods.

 if yours is a high-traffic building which needs fast service, you need one lift per 150-200
passengers.

 However, if you want moderate or economy-oriented service, a lift car per 250-300
passengers will offer better outputs.

 On the contrary, a hotel needs one lift car per 90-120 rooms.

Quantity of Service

 The quantity of service is best reflected by the number of passengers moved to their
destination.

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 This is measured considering the number of passengers handled during five minutes each
of the peak periods of the day.

This is also known as the handling capacity.

H= (300 x Q x 100) / T x P

Where,

H= Handling capacity as the percentage of peak population handled during 5 minutes,

Q= Average number of passengers carried in a car (depends on the dimensions of the lift car),

T= Waiting interval, and

P= Total population to be handled

Quantity of Service

T= RTT / N

Where,

T= Waiting interval

N= Number of lifts, and

RTT= Round Trip Time (average time taken by a fully-loaded lift to go from the ground floor,
discharge the passenger on various upper floors, and come back to the ground floor)

RTT is the sum of the time required in the following process:

a) Entry of the passengers on the ground floor,

b) Exit of the passengers on each floor of discharge,

c) Door closing time before each floor of discharge,

d) Door opening time on each discharging operation,

e) Acceleration periods,

f) Stopping and leveling periods,

g) Period of full rated speeds between stops going up, and

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h) Period of full rated speeds between stops going down.

• The quality of service is measured in the interval between the arrivals.

• It reflects the passenger waiting time for various floors and is also called waiting interval.

Speed

• The speed is dependent upon the quality and quantity of service.

• Therefore, there is no standard formula to measure it.

• Additionally, the motor needs to be sized based on the capacity and the speed.

2.7 Expected Stops and Floor Reversal in Lift Systems

1. Expected Stops

Expected stops refer to the floors where a lift is likely to stop based on passenger demand.
Factors influencing expected stops include:

• Building Use: Commercial, residential, or mixed-use buildings have different traffic

patterns. For instance, office buildings typically experience peak demand during specific
hours.

• Time of Day: Morning and evening rush hours can significantly affect the number of
stops at certain floors.

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• Floor Distribution: The number of tenants or occupants per floor influences the likelihood
of stops. For example, floors with high occupancy (like lobbies or popular amenities) are
expected to have more stops.

• Probable number of floors on which lift may stop is given by S n

= n * [ 1 – (n-1/n)Np ]

Np = Total number of passengers entering the car at the ground level n

= Number of floors to be served above ground floor

Sn = Most probable number of stops

2. Floor Reversal

Floor reversal occurs when a lift reaches a floor, but no passengers enter or exit, leading the lift
to reverse direction. This can happen due to:

• Passenger Demand: If no passengers are waiting on a floor, the lift may reverse to service
a more requested floor.

• Automatic Features: Some systems are designed to reverse direction automatically if the
lift has been idle at a floor for a certain period.

Simulation

Simulating lift systems involves modeling various scenarios to understand their performance
under different conditions.

Simulation Techniques

• Discrete Event Simulation (DES)

• Description: Models the operation of lift systems as discrete events, such as arrivals,
departures, and floor calls.

• Application: Useful for analyzing detailed interactions over time and assessing
bottlenecks.

• Agent-Based Modeling (ABM)

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• Description: Simulates individual passenger behavior and their interactions with the lift
system.

• Application: Provides insights into passenger preferences and choices, helping optimize
lift operation.

Common Cases for Lift Simulations

1. Peak Traffic Hours

o Scenario: Analyse lift performance during rush hours (e.g., morning and evening).

o Objective: Determine wait times, travel times, and the number of stops made.

2. Building Occupancy Changes

o Scenario: Simulate varying occupancy levels (e.g., full occupancy vs. low
occupancy).

o Objective: Assess how changes in the number of occupants affect lift wait times
and efficiency.

3. Single vs. Multiple Lift Systems o Scenario: Compare performance between a single

lift and a bank of multiple lifts.

o Objective: Evaluate improvements in service time and passenger wait times with
multiple lifts.

2.7 Lift arrangement

• The lift arrangement should be such that it minimizes the walking distance from all
entrances to the building.

• For maximum efficiency, they should be installed near the center of the building.

• In order to ensure minimum interference, the maximum travel distance between users and
the lift should be 150-200 ft.

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2.8 Escalators

• A moving staircase - a conveyor transport device for carrying people between floors of a
building.

• consists of a motor-driven chain of individual, linked steps that move up or down on

tracks, allowing the step treads to remain horizontal.

• are used to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators would be impractical like
shopping malls, airports, convention centers.

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Escalators are moving staircases designed to transport people between different floors in
buildings, often used in places like malls, airports, and transit stations. Here’s a detailed look at
escalators, including their design, operation, and considerations.

Types of Escalators

1. Standard Escalators

o Description: The most common type, designed for continuous transportation of

people. o Use: Found in commercial buildings, malls, and public transport stations.

2. Inclined Escalators

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o Description: Designed to operate on an incline, typically used in hilly areas or for
access between levels that are not directly vertical. o Use: Often found in amusement
parks or outdoor settings.

3. Moving Walkways

o Description: Flat escalators that transport people horizontally, designed for long
distances. o Use: Commonly used in airports to connect terminals or long corridors.

Design Considerations

1. Dimensions and Specifications o Width and Height: Determine based on expected

foot traffic and building layout.

o Step Size: Standard step size is typically around 16 to 18 inches in width and 12
inches in depth.

2. Angle of Inclination

o Standard Angle: Most escalators operate at a 30-degree angle, but this can vary
based on design and use case.

3. Load Capacity

o Passenger Capacity: Calculate based on expected traffic. Typical capacities range

from 4,000 to 8,000 people per hour, depending on the design.

4. Safety Features o Handrails: Must move at the same speed as the escalator steps to

prevent accidents. o Emergency Stop Buttons: Located at the top and bottom for quick

access.

o Skirt Guards: Prevent objects or clothing from getting caught in the gap between
steps and side panels.

5. Control Systems

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o Automatic Operation: Escalators typically run continuously but can be equipped
with sensors to stop during low-traffic periods. o Interlocking Systems: Ensure that
the escalator only operates when safe to do so.

6. Maintenance Requirements

o Regular Inspections: Essential for safety and longevity. Components should be

checked regularly for wear and tear.

o Cleaning: Ensure that the steps and surrounding areas are kept clean to prevent
slips and falls.

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