RA 10121 “Philippine Disaster Reduction and

CHAPTER 1
Management Act”

1 Meaning of Disaster ✧​ An act passed and approved on May 27,

2010. This act, unlike the P.D. 1566, is
Disaster — are extreme events that cause proactive in giving importance to
great loss to life and property. disaster mitigation and preparedness.

✦​ It is the sudden calamitous occurrence ✧​ This act provides a comprehensive,

that causes great harm, injury, all-hazard, multi-sectoral, inter-agency,
destruction, and devastation to life and and community-based approach to
property. disaster risk management through the
formulation of the National Disaster
✦​ The word disaster comes from the Risk Management Framework.
French word “disastre”, where “des”
means bad and “aster” means star. Information Dump

✦​ In earlier days, disasters were

considered to be an outcome of some ●​ Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan), which
occurred on November 8, 2013, is
unfavorable star.
the worst recorded disaster in the
Philippines, having around 6300
✦​ Disasters are described as the casualties and an estimated cost of
combination of the exposure to hazard, damage of 2 million dollars.
the conditions of vulnerability that are
present and insufficient capacity to
reduce or cope with negative Classification of Disasters:
consequences.
✦​ Natural Disasters — a natural
phenomenon caused by natural forces,
✦​ Disasters disrupt the normal pattern of
such as earthquakes, typhoons, volcanic
life, causing both physical and
eruptions, etc.
emotional suffering.

a.​ Rapid Onset Disasters

✦​ A natural event becomes a disaster only
when it significantly impacts human b.​ Progressive Onset Disasters
lives, causing harm, destruction, or (Global Warming)
disruption.

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

 ✦​ Man-made Disasters — caused by man
wherein the major direct causes are ✦​ According the formula, if there is no
identifiable, intentional or unintentional hazard, the risk is null.

Hazard — is a source or condition that has the Disaster risk — potential disaster losses in
potential to cause harm to humans in the form loves, health status, assets which could occur
of injury or illness, and etc. in a community over some specified time

✦​ Natural Hazard — occurs when an

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extreme natural event is destructive to
human life and property.
●​ Hazard is the potential of a source to
✦​ Human-made Hazard — caused by cause harm, while risk is the likelihood
human activities and can often be of the hazard to cause harm.
prevented.

Examples of Human-made Hazards Terms and Definitions to Remember:

Leaking of hazardous
Technological ●​ Ring of Fire — a path along the Pacific
chemicals, accidental
and Industrial Ocean characterized by active
explosions, bridge and
Disasters volcanoes and frequent earthquakes
road collapses

Terrorism and Bombs and explosions, ●​ Calamity — an event causing great and
Violence mass shootings often sudden damage or distress

●​ Earthquake — shaking of earth caused

Genocide, the deliberate
Complex killing of a large group of by waves moving on and below the
humanitarian people especially of a earth’s surface
emergencies certain ethnic group or
nation ●​ Volcanic Eruption —when lava and gas
are discharged from a volcanic vent.

Risk — combination of the probability of an

●​ Typhoon — type of tropical cyclone or
event and its negative consequences
severe tropical storm

✦​ Disaster Risk = Hazard x Exposure x

●​ Destruction — a sudden or great
Vulnerability
misfortune or failure
​

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

 ✧​ 6 out 10 of the largest cities are
also located along seismic fault
2 Risk Factors Underlying Disasters
lines

1.​ Climate Change 3.​ Poverty

✧​ This usually creates hazards like ✧​ The poor are more likely to
glacier melting, sea-level rise, occupy dangerous, less desirable
and extreme weather events. locations.
✧​ Predictions made by the ✧​ Disasters have long-term
Intergovernmental Panel on consequences on poor people as
Climate Change that would they have fewer means to
happen by 2100: recover.

○​ Sea level will rise by 4.​ Environmental Degradation

around 18 – 59 cm
○​ Oceans will become more ✧​ Forests have covered 46% of the
acidic and warmer Earth’s land surface — half of
○​ Tropical cyclones will these have disappeared and only
become more intense one-fifth of all forests remain
○​ Increase drought in some undisturbed.
regions leading to food ✧​ Coral reefs are home to
and water shortages one-fourth of all marine species,
○​ Greater rainfall that would however 60% of it could be lost in
trigger more floods the next two or four decades.
○​ Increased temperature ✧​ The expansion of deserts and the
causing lake bursts and degradation of land threaten
disastrous floods nearly one quarter of the surface
✧​ Global warming can cause
2.​ Rapid and Unplanned Urbanization widespread species loss

✧​ UN-HABITAT: 3,351 cities are

located in low-lying coastal zones 3 Effects of Disasters
that may be affected by rising
sea levels
✦​ Medical Effects — may include
traumatic injuries, emotional stress,

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 epidemic stress, and indigenous breeding of waterbone bacteria and
diseases malaria-carrying mosquitoes

✦​ Damage to Critical Facilities — may ✦​ Food Scarcity — destroyed crops and

damage communication installations, loss of agricultural supplies result in the
electrical generating and transmission increase of food prices
facilities
✦​ Emotional Aftershocks — people may
✦​ Disruption of Transportation — develop post-traumatic stress disorder
transportation may be disrupted by (PTSD) due to being confronted with
broken bridges, roads, and streets scenes of destruction and death of
loved ones.
✦​ Economic Impact — may disrupt
economies as normal business ✦​ Death Toll — number of casualties may
operations and other economic result to economic collapse due to lack
activities are curtailed of manpower

✦​ Global Environmental Change — could

4 Different Perspectives of a Disaster
result in a wide range of more hazards
such as wildfires, mudslides, reduced
✦​ productivity in oceans, and weakened ✦​ Physical Perspective — the most
immune systems observable and most easily measured
perspective
✦​ Social and Political Impact —
countries with large segments of the ●​ Disaster affects physical
population consisting of the poor are elements like buildings,
most vulnerable when disaster strikes infrastructures, houses, injuries,
disabilities, sanitation, etc.
∘₊✧───────────────────✧₊
∘ ✦​ Psychological Perspective — a more
difficult and complex aspect of a
✦​ Displaced Populations — people disaster
abandon their homes and seek shelter
in other regions ●​ distress
●​ hopelessness
✦​ Health Risks — severe flooding can ●​ helplessness
results in stagnant water that allows ●​ intrusion / avoidance

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 ●​ cognitive effects
●​ grief / withdrawn / isolation ✦​ Economic Perspective — disasters can
●​ lack of trust reduce local and international trade, as
●​ guilt / hatred / revenge well as paralyze a country’s
●​ insecurities transportation system

●​ Economic Effects of Disasters:

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➔​ loss of life
●​ Post-traumatic Stress Disorder ➔​ unemployment
(PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder that ➔​ loss of property
happens to a person who ➔​ loss of household articles
experienced or witnessed a
➔​ loss of crops
traumatic event.
➔​ loss of public
infrastructure

✦​ Socio-cultural Perspective — the most ✦​ Political Perspective — the effects of a

common and most easily measured disaster and the resulting distribution of
perspective humanitarian aid are profoundly linked
to politics
●​ Filipinos are generally known as ​
“matiisin”, resourceful, optimistic, ●​ Disasters test the preparedness
and prayerful. of the government.
●​ The culture of “malalampasan din ●​ Political Effects of Disasters:
natin ‘to” and “bahala na ang
Diyos” gives hope to Filipinos ➔​ low level of trust in public
amidst disasters. institutions may result to
●​ Communities with limited access citizens ignoring
to information about disaster risk recommendations and
preparedness make them more disregard information
vulnerable to disaster. ➔​ too much confidence on
●​ Socio-Cultural Effect of Disasters: receiving aid may
unmotivate citizens to
➔​ change in individual roles take measures on their
➔​ disruption of social own
relationships and personal
connections
​

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 ✦​ Biological Perspective — includes the ✦​ RA 10121: Vulnerability is defined as the
emergence of organisms or agents that characteristics and circumstances of a
may cause a new disease community that make it susceptible to
the damaging effects of a hazard.
●​ Epidemic Level — affects a large
number of people within a given ✦​ It is situation and hazard specifc.
community or area (ex. dengue)
Factors that Increase Vulnerability:
●​ Pandemic Level — affects larger
regions, sometimes spanning 1.​ Deforestation — increases vulnerability
entire continents or the globe as it may cause the soil to loosen so
when heavy rainfall occurs, it can cause
●​ Effects of Biological Disasters: landslides, mudslides, and floods.

➔​ loss of lives 2.​ Putting homes in high-risk areas

➔​ public demobilization
➔​ negative economic effect
Sector of Society’s ​
➔​ unemployment 2
Vulnerability to Disaster
➔​ hunger

✦​ Vulnerability is most often associated

CHAPTER 2 with poverty.

✦​ The risk of exposure of people differs on

1 Vulnerability
different factors such as social group,
gender, ethnic / other identities, age,
Vulnerability — is the state of being at risk, or etc.
the potential to be harmed.
Factors affecting vulnerability of a community:
✦​ UNDP: It is the level of loss to each
element should a hazard of a gievn 1.​ Population density near a hazard
severity occur. event

✦​ IFRC: The diminished capacity of an ●​ Population — number of

individual or group to anticipate, cope individuals inhabiting a
up with, resist, and recover from the particular space at the same
impact of a hazard. time

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

 ●​ Population density — number of
individuals living in an area in 3.​ Economic Factor
relation to the size of an area
●​ The higher the population ●​ Rural households are more
density, the more difficult it is to vulnerable to disasters due to
escape easily and quickly. greater number of population
and are always subject to
2.​ Capacity and efficiency to reduce poverty.
disaster risk

Vulnerabilities of Different ​
∘₊✧──────────────────── 3
Elements Exposed to Hazards
✧₊∘∘
​
Exposure — refers to the elements at risk from
Social, Environmental, and Economic Factors
a natural or man-made hazard event. It is a
of Vulnerability:
single instance when a system is open to
damage.

1.​ Social Factor

✦​ Physical Vulnerability — includes
population density levels, place of
●​ Children and elderly are more
settlement, and materials used for
vulnerable to disasters.
infrastructure and housing.
●​ People with medical conditions,
as well as pregnant women are
✦​ Social Vulnerability — inability of the
also vulnerable to infections.
people, organization, or society to
●​ PWD, homeless, and street
prevent severe effects because of the
people are vulnerable to hazards.
expected behavior in social interactions,
institutions, etc.
2.​ Environmental Factor

✦​ Economic Vulnerability — based on the

●​ Developing nations are more
economic state of individuals,
vulnerable to disasters due to
communities, and nations.
their limited ability to adapt to
changes.
●​ Rapid urbanization in hazardous The poorer the country, the more
areas heighten the vulnerability vulnerable it is to disasters due to lack
to disasters. of funds or budgets to build sturdy
structures.

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 ●​ At risk of volcanic eruptions, quakes,
✦​ Environmental Vulnerability — caused and floods.
by natural resource depletion and
destruction
Hazard, Exposure, and ​
4
Vulnerability to Disaster Risk
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✦​ Hazard — harmful condition, substance,
●​ Vulnerability can be expressed as: or behavior that can cause loss of life,
○​ 0 = lowest degree injury, to other health effects, harm to
○​ 1 = highest degree. property, loss of livelihood, etc.
●​ Vulnerability of people is the ratio
of casualties or injuries to the total ✦​ Exposure — is the presence of elements
population. at risk or chance of being harmed from
●​ Vulnerability of buildings is a natural or man-made event
expressed as a repair cost or degree
of damage. ✦​ Vulnerability — characteristics and
circumstances of a community, system,
Reasons Why The Philippines is Highly or asset that make it susceptible to the
Vulnerable: damaging effects of a hazard and
inability to prevent, mitigate, and
●​ It lies in the Pacific typhoon belt with an prepare for these hazardous events.
average of 20 typhoons a year.
●​ Rugged nature of landscape makes it ✦​ Risk — implies the probability of
vulnerable to landslides, mudflows, etc. possible adverse effects.
●​ It is an archipelagic country with many
small islands, with some of them at ✦​ Disaster — serious disruption to the
below sea level. functioning of a community or society
●​ It has one of the longest shoreline in the which causes widespread human,
world (32, 400 km) making it vulnerable material, and economic losses
to storm surges.
●​ It is primarily an agricultural and fishing Physical Elements Exposed to Various Hazards:
economy.
●​ Has poor institutional and social ●​ Essential Facilities
capacity to manage, respond, and ●​ Industrial and High Potential Loss
recover from disaster. Facilities Containing Hazardous
●​ High level of poverty. Materials

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 ●​ Transportation and Utility Lifelines
CHAPTER 3

Steps to Reduce Exposure to Hazards: ​

What is a hazard? ​

1.​ Prevention — eliminate hazards or ●​ A hazard is the potential for damage to

exposure to the hazard man and his environment that may
2.​ Mitigation — reduce hazard, exposure, result from the occurrence of natural
or vulnerability of the elements exposed events such as volcanic eruptions, etc.
to the hazard
3.​ Adaptation — modifications in the ●​ An event per se does not constitute a
normal behavior aimed at reducing the hazard, it’s only when man and his
exposure or vulnerability to the hazard environment are threatened that these
events can be considered hazards.
Information Dump
1 Types of Hazards
●​ Exposure and vulnerability are
distinct. A community can be There are two main types of hazards: natural
exposed but it does not mean they
hazards and anthropogenic hazards.
are vulnerable.
●​ Infrastructures in Japan may be
exposed to earthquakes, but they 1.​ Natural Hazards — arise from natural
are not vulnerable due to processes in the environment.
architectural and engineering
designs that are ➤​ earthquakes
earthquake-resistant. ➤​ tsunami
●​ Historical disaster events are often
➤​ landslides
used in deterministic analyses that
assess the impact of past events ➤​ volcanic eruptions
with current exposure. ➤​ floods
●​ It is used to estimate the probability
of a hazard to cause a disaster. 2.​ Quasi-natural Hazards — arise from
●​ Mitigation is the action of reducing the interaction of natural processes and
something’s severity, seriousness, or
human activities
painfulness.

➤​ pollution
➤​ desertification
➤​ smog

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

 3.​ Technological / Man-made Hazards — health of living organisms, primarily
directly arise as a result of human that of humans
activities
➤​ COVID-19
➤​ release of chemicals ➤​ HIV and AIDS
➤​ terrorism
➤​ car accidents 5.​ Man-made Hazards — a result of
human activities​
Other Sub-Types of Hazards:

2 Characteristics of a Hazard
1.​ Geologic Hazards — extreme natural
events in the crust that pose a threat ​
Key Hazard Parameters: ​
➤​ earthquakes
➤​ volcanic eruptions ✦​ Magnitude — a measure of an event’s
strength which indicates how
2.​ Hydrologic Hazards — extreme events destructive the event is
associated with water occurrence,
movement, distribution The Richter Magnitude Scale
measures the seismic energy
➤​ floods released in an earthquake.
➤​ drought
The Volcanic Explosivity Index
3.​ Atmospheric Hazards — interferes with (VEI) measures the relative
the body’s ability to transport and explosiveness of eruptions based
utilize oxygen or can have negative mainly on visual observations.
toxicological effects on the human body

✦​ Intensity — is the quality of being felt

➤​ typhoons and hurricanes
strongly or having a powerful effect
➤​ thunderstorms
➤​ tornadoes
➤​ hail The Mercalli and Rossi-Forel Scale
measures the earthquake’s impacts
4.​ Biologic Hazards — also known as on the ground, people, and
biohazards, refer to biological structures.
substances that pose a threat to the

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 ✦​ Speed of onset — is how predictable a
Man-made Hazards Signs and Symbols
hazard is and how much lead time is
allowed by it

✦​ Duration — is how long the hazard

affects an area

✦​ Aerial Extent / Scope — the larger the Fire Hazard Explosive Hazard
scope of an event, the greater the
potential for damage will be

3 The Impact of Various Hazards

1.​ Physical Impact — includes physical Health Hazard Toxic Hazard

injuries, destruction, and loss of vital
infrastructure

2.​ Psychological Impact — grief and

psychological illness

Aquatic Toxicity Corrosive Hazard

3.​ Socio-cultural Impact — displacement
of population and loss of cultural
identity

4.​ Economic Impact — loss of job due to

displacement
Skin, eye, or Contains gases
respiratory irritation under pressure
5.​ Environmental Impact — loss of forest
due to forest fires

6.​ Biological Impact — epidemic to

people, flora and fauna

Radiation symbol Biohazard symbol

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 ✦​ Forces inside Earth slowly deform the
4 Identification of Hazard and Risk
rock that makes up Earth’s crust,
causing the rock to bend.

Hazard Identification — process of

✦​ The energy released travels in all
determining all physical and nonphysical
directions from the focus through
agents in the workplace or other environment
seismic waves.

●​ Elimination or controlling of hazards is

crucial. The bending of rocks increases the
potential energy.
Risk Assessment — a way to determine which
hazards should be prioritized by taking into ✦​ The energy released travels in all
consideration the probability and severity of directions from the focus through
impact seismic waves.

✦​ The focus or hypocenter is the point

below the surface.

✦​ The epicenter is the point on the surface

above the focus.

✦​ Triangulation Method: Used to

determine the location of the epicenter,
where they gather how far a
seismograph station is.

CHAPTER 4

Earthquake — the vibration of Earth produced

by the rapid release of energy within the
lithosphere

✦​ It is caused by slippage along a break

in the lithosphere, which is called a fault.
​

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

Types of Waves: Duck, Cover, Hold:

1.​ Body Waves ●​ Duck — center of gravity, to reduce the

tendency to trip or fall
a.​ Primary / P-Wave — can pass ●​ Cover — protect the head from falling
through liquids, longitudinal objects
b.​ Secondary / S-Wave — cannot ●​ Hold — hold on your cover or hold your
pass through liquids position

2.​ Surface Waves — slower than body Elastic Rebound Theory — suggests that
waves​ strain energy builds up in the deforming works
on either side of the fault until it overcomes
a.​ Love Wave — movement is the resistance posed by an irregularity on the
horizontal fault plane.
b.​ Rayleigh Wave — movement is
vertical (like ocean waves) ●​ It is the tendency for the deformed rock
along a fault to spring back after an
earthquake.

No aftershock is greater than the

primary earthquake as most of the
energy has already been released.

1 Earthquake Hazards

Ground Shaking

Ground Shaking / Vibration — is what we

feel when energy built up by the application of

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

stress to the lithosphere is released by faulting ✦​ Acceleration — rate of change of
during an earthquake velocity expressed as a ratio of the
acceleration of gravity
How Ground Shaking is Measured:

Ground Rupture
✦​ It is measured in terms of velocity,
acceleration, frequency content of
shaking, and how long the shaking Ground Rupture — the lithosphere breaks
continues (duration). when stressed beyond its strength​
threshold, similar to rock breaking under
✦​ Velocity — product of frequency and impact
amplitude of a seismic wave.

✦​ The nature of the ground materials or

geology also determines the shaking
reaction of the ground.

Acceleration of Gravity:
1 g = 9.81 m/s² = 981 gals

Definition of Terms
Safety Guidelines and Setbacks:
✦​ Frequency — is how often a vibration
occurs (hertz / Hz). The product of 1.​ PHIVOLCS establishes specific setback
wavelength and frequency is velocity. requirements:

✦​ Natural Frequency — is the frequency ●​ 5-meter minimum setback for

at which a system naturally vibrates Valley Fault System in Metro
once it is set into motion. It depends on Manila
the stiffness and mass of the system. ●​ 10-meter danger zone
designated around fault traces
✦​ Period — time it takes for one full cycle
to occur. It is equal to the reciprocal for 2.​ Hospitals and schools may require
frequency (1/frequency) larger setback distances
3.​ Local governments can access detailed
fault maps

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 4.​ Different building types require varying ground (less then 3 degrees) above a
safety margins liquefied zone move laterally

✦​ Oscillation — due to the flat or nearly

Liquefaction
flat slope, the ground is unable to
spread & instead oscillates like a wave

✦​ Loss of Bearing Strength — loss of

strength of sediments resulting in tilting
of houses & floating of buoyant
structures that are anchored on the
liquefied zone

Landslide

Landslides — seismic vibration is a common

Liquefaction — saturated, loose, and poorly
triggering mechanism for landslides.
compacted soil temporarily loses strength and
stiffness during vibration or shaking,
✦​ Landslides can be prevented by
making the soil act like a liquid.
reinforcing slope material, modifying
the pathway for surface and
Effects of Liquefaction During an Earthquake:
underwater and by putting piles and
retaining walls.
1.​ Foundation Failure
2.​ Infrastructure Damage
3.​ Landslides
4.​ Ejection of water and sedimentts

Types of Liquefaction:

✦​ Flow Failure — occurs on liquefiable

slope materials with steepness greater
than 3 degrees
✦​ When an object is released from one’s
✦​ Lateral Spreading — blocks or the grip, it yields to the pull of gravity and
broken pieces of the flat or very gentle comes down.

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes

 of meters exposing normally
Tsunami
submerged areas.

Tsunami — a huge sea wave triggered by a 3.​ Hear an unusual roaring sound.
violent displacement of the ocean floor.

✦​ Underwater earthquakes, volcanic Fires

eruptions or landslides can cause
tsunami. Fires — moderate ground shaking can break
gas and electrical lines, sever fuel lines, and
✦​ As it approaches a shallow coastline, its overturn stoves.
speed decreases, but the height of the
tsunami increases drastically, bringing
CHAPTER 5
so much damage to nearby
communities.
1 Volcano-Related Hazards

Volcanic Hazards — any observable facts of a

potentially dangerous volcanic process that
threatens and directly affects human beings,
animals, properties, infrastructure, tourism,
and even political stability

Signs of an Impending Tsunami: Various Volcanic-Related Hazards:

1.​ Feel an earthquake 1.​ Ballistic Projectile — are rock

2.​ See ocean water disappear from beach, fragments that are ejected from
bay, river volcano’s mouth that are comparable to
cannonballs
✦​ Water may recede from the
coast, exposing the ocean floor,
reefs and fish before returning as
a fast-moving wall of water
(tsunami). ​

✦​ This is called “drawback”.

Drawback can exceed hundreds

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 2.​ Ash / Tephra Fall — minute volcanic
particles such as pulverized rock,
minerals and silicon which has fine to
coarse grain.

​ Effects of Pyroclastic Flows:

●​ Burn
●​ Impact and Burial
●​ Inhalation of Gases and Hot Ash
●​ Lahars and Flooding

Lahars are volcanic mudflows that are

3.​ Pyroclastic Flows — contain a
a combination of water and volcanic
highly-density mix of hot lava blocks,
debris. They can be hot or cold, and
pumice, ash and volcanic gases.
can occur even without volcanic
eruptions.
​ Types of Pyroclastic Flows:

✦​ Merapi 4.​ Lava Flows — streams of molten rocks

✦​ Pelean that are poured or oozed from an
✦​ Soufriere erupting vent

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 Lava flows rarely threaten human life
because it moves slowly.

5.​ Volcanic gases — magma contains

dissolve gases which provides the
driving force that causes most volcanic
eruptions.

✦​ Ground swells / Inflation — ground tilt

An example of this was the Lake Nyos and ground fissuring due to magma
disaster, when a massive release of intrusion
gas containing carbon dioxide killed
about 1,700 people. ✦​ Localized Landslides — rock falls and
landslides from the summit area that
6.​ Debris Avalanche / Volcanic Landslide are not attributed to heavy rains
— massive collapse of a volcano, usually
triggered by an earthquake or volcanic ✦​ Drying up of vegetation
eruption
✦​ Increase in temperature bodies of water
7.​ Tsunami — could be generated during near volcanoes / drying up of springs
undersea eruptions or debris
avalanches

2 Signs of Impending Eruptions

✦​ Increase in the frequency of volcanic

quakes with rumbling sounds; ​
occurrence of volcanic tremors
✦​ Noticeable variation in the chemical
✦​ Increased steaming activity; change in content of springs, crater lakes within
color of steam from white to gray due to the vicinity of the volcano
entrained ash
✦​ Appearance of solfataras (craters with
✦​ Crater Glow — a visible sign of magma sulfur gas)
movement within a volcano

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Parameters Used to Monitor Volcanoes:

1.​ Ground Deformation – any surface

changes on a volcano, its interpretation
needs field verification sometimes

2.​ Seismic Activity – when magma rises, it

breaks rock along the way, generating
earthquakes

✦​ Monitoring of quakes/tremors is
done by using a seismometer
that determines which patterns
of seismic waves precede an
eruption.

3.​ Gases – monitor types and rate of

emission of different gases;

✦​ Concentrations of gases are

sometimes high enough to create
acid rain that kills vegetation.

4.​ Sensory Observations

✦​ Visual – intensified presence of

steam; drying up of vegetation

✦​ Auditory – rumbling sounds are

heard

✦​ Olfactory – foul smell (like rotten

egg caused by sulfur) because of
presence of volcanic gases

✦​ Tactile – ground movement or

earthquake is felt
​

Shannon Balaos​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Grade 11 - Descartes