Chapter 13: Brain and Cranial Nerves

• 13.1 Devolvement of the brain

•
o Brain is part of the CNS within the cranial cavity
o 4 major divisions
§ Brainstem
§ Cerebellum
§ Diencephalon
§ Cerebrum
• Formation of the Neural tube
o Neural folds fuse to create a neural tube, which gives rise to the
CNS
 o
• Development of the Brain segments
o Form during early embryo
o Forebrain
§ Divides into telencephalon ( becomes the cerebrum
o Midbrain
§ Remains as a single structure in embryo
o Hindbrain
§ Divided into Metencephalon (becomes pons and
cerebellum) and myelencephalon ( becomes medulla
oblongata)

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 o

• 13.2 Brainstem: region that connects spinal cord to the base of the rest
of the brain

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 o Major regions
§ Medulla oblongata
• Most inferior part
• Both ascending and descending nerve tract
• Continuous with spinal cord
• Discrete nuclei in internal gray matter
• Regulates: heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
respiration, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping,
coughing, and sneezing
• Pyramids: descending nerve tracts on the anterior
surface
• each half of the brain control the opposite half of
the body
• Olives: rounded; protrude from anterior surface.
Nuclei within help regulate balance, coordination,
modulation of sounds from inner ear
• Nuclei of cranial nerve 4-7
§ Pons
• Superior to the medulla oblongata
• Fiber tracts: ascending and descending
• Nuclei
o Pontine nuclei: anterior portion, relay between
cerebrum and cerebellum
o Cranial nerve 5-8: posterior portion
o Sleep center
o Respiratory center coordinates with center in
medulla

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 § Midbrain (mesencephalon)
• Small and superior to pons
• Nuclei
o Cranial nerves 3-5
o Tectum: 4 nuclei that forms mounds on dorsal
surface of midbrain (corpora quadrigemina)
§ Each separate part is a colliculus
§ Two superior colliculi involved in visual
reflexes, receive information from
inferior colliculi, eyes, skin, cerebrum
§ Two inferior colliculi involved in hearing
o Red nuclei of tegmentum: aid in uncosnious
regulation and coordination of motor activities
o Substantia nigra: pigmented with melanim,
interconnected with basal nuclei of the
cerebrum
o Tracts:
§ Tegmentum: ascending tracts such as
spinal and medial lemniscus from spinal
cord to brain
§ Descending: cerebral peduncles from
cerebrum through brainstem to spinal
cord

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 •
o Also contains reticular formation
§ Group of nuclei scattered throughout brainstem
§ Nuclei play roles in arousal, awareness, posture, pain,
sleep awake cycle
§ Nuclei help modulate activity of cranial nuclei in
brainstem, swallowing breathing, and heart rate
o Responsible for many essential, autonomic function
• 13.3 Cerebellum
o Attached to brainstem posterior to pons
o Folia: ridges cortex is folded in
o Arbor Vitae: white matter resembles a tree
o Three major parts
§ Flocculonodular lobe
• Small inferior
§ Vermis
• Narrow central

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 § Two Lateral hemispheres
• each divvied by primary fissure into anterior and
posterior lobes
§ Cerebellar cortex contains more neurons than the entire
cerebral cortex, neuron included
• Stellate
• Basket
• Granule
• Golgi
• Purnkinje cell
o Largest in CNS
o Receives 200,000 synapses
o Inhibitory
o Only cerebellur cortex neurons that send
axons to cerebellar nuclei
§ Communicates with other CNS regions through three large
tracts called cerebellar peduncles
§ Functions
• Control of muscle movement and tone
• Govern balance
• Regulate extent of intentional movement involved in
learning motor skills

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 §

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 o

o
• 13.4 Diencephalon
o Located between brainstem and cerebrum
o Components
§ Thalamus
• Two lateral portions connected by Interthalamix
adhesion
• Surrounded by 3rd ventricle

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 • Sensory info from spinal cord synapses her before
projecting to cerebrum
o Medial geniculate nucleus: auditory info
o Lateral geniculate nucleus: visual info
o Ventral posterior nucleus: most other types of
sensory info
• Motor function: ventral anterior and ventral lateral
nucelli
• Mood modification: anterior and medial nuclei
connected to limbic system
• Emotion regulation: lateral dorsal nucleus
• Sensory integration: lateral posterior and pulvinar
nuclei
§ Subthalamus
• Small area immediately inferior to thalamus
• Function as part of subcortical basal nuclei in
controlling motor function
• Contains subthalamic nuclei and several ascending
and descending nerve tracts
§ Epithalamus
• Small area superior and posterior to thalamus
• Habenula: motivational control and behavior
• Pineal gland: modulate sleep-wake cycle and other
biorhythms
§ Hypothalamus
• Most inferior portion of diencephalon

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 o
• Mammillary bodies: bulges on ventral surface;
olfactory reflexes and emotional responses to odors
• Infundibulum:
o stalk extending from floor;
o connects hypothalamus to posterior pituitary
glands.
o Controls endocrine system
• Receives input from viscera, taste receptors, limbic
system, nipples, external genitailia, prefrontal cortex
• Efferent fibers to brainstem, spinal cord (autonomic
system) through infundibulum to posterior pituitary,
and to cranial nerves controlling swallowing and
shivering
• Important in regulation of mood, emotion, sexual
pleasure, satiation, rage, and fear
• 13.5 Cerebrum
o Largest portion of brain
o Composed of right and left hemispheres

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 o Cortex: outer surface
§ Sulci: depression
• Longitudinal fissure: separates the two hemispheres
• Lateral fissure: separates temporal lobe from frontal
and parietal lobes
• Central sulcus: separates frontal and parietal lobes
o Cerebral medulla: white matter between cortex and nuclei
o Basal nuclei: gray matter within the medulla
§ Gryri: folds
o Central sulcus:
§ Between the precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex) and
postcentral gyrus (primary somatic sensory cortex)
o Frontal lobe
§ Voluntary motor function, motivation, aggression, sense of
smell, mood, personality and decision making
o Parietal lobe
§ Reception and integration of visual input
o Occipital lobe:
§ Reception and integration of visual input
o Temporal lobe:
§ reception and evaluation for smell and hearing, memory,
abstract thought, judgment
§ Insula is within

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 o

o
o Cerebral medulla
§ White matter between the cortx and nuclei
§ Association fiber:
• Connections withing the same hemisphere
§ Commissural fibers
• Connect on ehemispher to the other; corpus
callosum
§ Projection fibers:
• Tracts bwteen the cerebrum and the other parts of
the brain and spinal cord

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 §

§
o Basal Nuclei
§ Found in the cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain
§ Corpus striatum in cerebrum composes of
• Caudate nucleus
• Lentiform nucleus composed of
o Putamen
o Globus pallidus

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 § Outside of cerebrum: subthalamic nucleus and substantia
nigra
§ Left hemisphere

•
o Limbic system
§ Part of cerebrum and diencephalon
§ Basic survival functions such as memory, reproduction,
nutrition
§ Emotion
§ Incerbrum: cingulate gryus and hippocampus
§ Various nuclei of the thalamus
§ Part of the basal nuclei, hypothalamus, olfactory cortex,
fornix

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 §
• 13.6 Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
o Meninges: connective tissue membranes; surround and protect
the brain
o Layers
§ Dura mater: superficial
• Two layers
o Outer periosteal dura and inner meningeal
dura
• Dura folds
o Falx cerebri: in longitudinal fissure between
the two cerebral hemispheres
o Tentorium cerebelli: between the two
cerebellar hemispheres
o Venous sinuses form at the base of the three
fold

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 • Dural venous sinuses form where the two layers of
dura mater are separated
o Drain venous blood from brain
§ Arachnoid mater
• Thin wispy layer
• Subdural space
o Between dura and arachnoid
o Only a small amount of serous fluid within

o
§ Pia mater: bound tightly to brain
• Thin, delicate C.T. membrane closely adhered to
brain follows external contours
o Spaces

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 § Subdural: serous fluid
§ Subarachnoid: CSF
• Contains web like strands of arachnoid, blood
vessels, and cerebrospinal fluid
• Ventricles
o Lateral ventricles:
§ within cerebral hemispheres separated but septa
pellucidum
o Third ventricles:
§ within diencephalon
o Interventricular foramina join lateral ventricles with third
o Fourth ventricle:
§ associated with pon and medulla oblongata. Connected to
third ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct, contious with the
spinal cord and connected to the subarachnoid space by
the lateral and medial apertures

o
• Cerebrospinal Fluid

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 o Similar to serum, but most protein removed
o Bathes brain and spinal cord
o Protective cushion around CNS
o Choroid plexuses: produce CSF which fills ventricles and other
parts of the brain and spinal cord
§ Composed of ependymal cells their support tissue, and
associated blood vessels
§ Found in each ventricle but most of CSF is produced within
lateral ventricles
o CSF flow
§ Lateral ventricles à interventricular foramina à third
ventricle à cerebral aqueduct à fourth ventricle à
apertures à subarachnoid space à arachnoid
granulations à dural sinus.

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• 13.7 Blood Supply to the brain
o Requires a tremendous amount of blood
o Receives 15 to 20% of blood pumped by heart
o Interruption can cause unconsciousness and irreversible brain
damage
o High metabolic rate; dependent upon constant supply of oxygen
and glucose
o Receives blood through arteries: internal carotids and vertebral
arteries. The vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery.
Carotids join basilar to form the vertebral arterial circle (circle of
Willis)
o Cerebral arteries arise from arterial circle
• Blood-brain Barrier
o Endothelial cells (lining all capillaries) have tight junctions
between them
o Astrocytes have foot processes that influence capillary
permeability
o Basement membrane of endothelium
o These 3 characteristics determine permeability
§ Lipid-soluble substances pass through by diffusion:
nicotine, ethanol, heroin.
§ Water soluble substances move through by mediated
transport: amino acids, glucose.
• 13.8 Cranial Nerves
o Indicated by
§ Roman numerals 1 to 8 from anterior to posterior
§ Names
o May have one or more of three functions

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 § Sensory (special or general)
§ Somatic motor (control of skeletal muscles)
§ Parasympathetic (regulation of glands, smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle)

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o
• Reflexes involving Cranial Nerves
o X (Vagus): reflexes relating to with heart rate, blood pressure,
and respiration
o Relexes involving both cranial nerves and brainstem
§ Turning the eyes toward sudden noise, touvh on skin, flash
of light

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 § Eyes tacking a moving object
§ Reflex using 8,5, and 7 to contract muscles associated with
middle ear that protect ear ossicles
§ Chewing reaction to textures of food, movement of
tongue pushing food under tooth-row and out of harms
way

Chapter 15 Special Senses

• 15.1 Olfaction
o Olfaction:
§ sense of smell
o Olfactory epithelium
§ Superior nasal cavity
§ 10 million olfactory neurons
§ Olfactory Vesicles:
• Dendrites of olfactory neurons have enlarged ends
§ Olfactory hairs
• Cilia of olfactory neurons embedded in mucus
§ Odorants dissolve in mucus; attach to receptor
§ Cilis depolarize and initiate action potentials in olfactory
neurons
§ Olfactory epithelium is replaced as it wears down
§ Basal cells replace olfactory neurons every 2 month

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 o

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• Neuronal pathways for olfaction
o Olfactory sensory pathway
§ Olfactory neurons (bipolar) in epithelium pass through
cribriform plate to olfactory bulbs and synapse with tufted
cells or mitral cells
§ Extend to the olfactory tract and synapse with association
neurons
• Association neurons receive input from the brain so
info can be modifies before it hits the brain
• Info goes through olfactory cortex of the frontal lobe
without going through thalamus (only major senses
does not go through the thalamus)
§ 1. Processes of the olfactory nerves, formed by the axons
of the olfactory neurons, project through the foramina in
the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb.
§ 2. Axons of neurons in the olfactory bulb project through
the olfactory tract to the olfactory cortex or secondary
olfactory areas.
§ 3. The olfactory cortex is involved in the conscious
perception of smell.

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• 15.2 Taste
o Taste bud
§ Supporting cells surrounding taste (gustatory) cells
§ Have microvilli (gustatory hairs) extending into taste pores
o Types of papillae
§ Filiform
• Filament shaped
o most numerous, no taste bud
§ Vallate
• Largest; least amount; 8 to 12 in V along border
between front and back parts of the tongue
• Have taste buds
§ Foliate
• Leaf shaped
• In folds on sides of tongue
• Contain most sensitive taste buds
• Decrease with age
§ Fungiform
• Mushroom shaped
• Scattered irregularly over the superior surface of the
tongue
• Look like small red dots interspersed among the
filiform
• Have taste buds

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 §

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 o Taste Types
§ Sour:
• most sensitive on lateral side of tongue
§ Salty:
• Most sensitive on tip of the tongue
• Shares lowest sensitivity with sweet
• Anything with sodium (Na+) causes depolarization
plus other metal ion
• Craved by humans
§ Bitter
• Most sensitive on posterior
• Highest sensitivity
• Sensation produced by alkaloids which are toxic
§ Sweet
• Most sensitive on tip of tongue
• Lowest sensitivity
• Craved by humans
§ Umami (Glutamate)
• Scattered sensitivity
• Caused by amino acids
• Craved by humans
o Taste
§ Texture affects it
§ Temperature affects.
§ Rapid adaptation both at level of taste bud and within the
CNS

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 § Influenced by olfactory
§ Different taste= different threshold with bitter being the
taste most sensitive
§ Many alkaloids (bitter) are poisonous
o Stimulation of Taste Recpetors
§ Salt: Sodium ions diffuse through Na+ channels, resulting
in depolarization.
§ Sweet: Sugars, such as glucose, or artificial sweeteners
bind to receptors and cause the cell to depolarize by
means of a G protein mechanism. The a subunit of the G
protein activates adenylate cyclase, which produces cAMP.
cAMP activates a kinase that phosphorylates K+ channels.
The K+ channels close, resulting in depolarization.

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 o Neuronal pathways for taste
§ Chorda tympani (part of VII)
• Carry sensations from anterior 1/3 of tongue (except
from circumvallate papillae)
§ Glossopharyngeal Nerve (lV)
• Carries taste sensation from posterior 1/3 tongue
• Vallate papillae and superior pharynx
§ Vagus nerve (X)
• Carries a few fibers for taste sensation from the
epiglottis

§
o 15.3 Visual System
§ Includes the eyes, accessory structures, and ptic nerves,
tracts, and pathways
§ Accessory structures
• Eybrow

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 • Eyelids
o Palpebral fissure
§ Space between eyelids
o Canthi
§ Lateral and medial eyelids meet
o Medial canthus has caruncle with modified
sweat and sebaceous glands
o Five layers of tissues including a dense
connective tissue tarsal plate that helps
maintain shape of lid
• Eyelashes
o Double/triple row of hairs
o Ciliary glands (modified sweat glands)
§ Empty into hair follicles
o Meibomian glands
§ Inner margins produce sebum
o Conjunctiva
§ Thin transparent mucous membrane
• Palpebral conjunctiva
o Inner surface eyelids
• Bulbar conjunctiva
o Anterior surface of eye
except over pupil

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 o

o
o Lacrimal Apparatus
§ 1. Tears are produced in thelacrimal gland and exit the
gland rough several lacrimal ducts.
§ 2. The tears pass over the surface of theeye.
§ 3. Tears enter the lacrimal canaliculi.
§ 4. Tears are carried through thelacrimal sac to the
nasolacrimal duct.

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 § 5. Tears enter the nasal cavity from the nasolacrimal duct.

§
o Extrinsic Eye Muscles
§ Six attached to each eye
• Superior, inferior, medial, lateral rectus muscles
• Superior and inferior oblique muscles

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 §

§
o Anatomy of the eye

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 § Hollow, fluid filled sphere
§ Walls compose of
• Fibrous
o Sclera and cornea
• Vascular
o Choroid, cilary body, iris
• Nervous
o Retina

o
• Fibrous Tunic
o Sclera
§ White outer layer
§ Maintain shape, protects internal structure, provides
muscle attachment point, continuous with cornea
§ Dense collagenous connective tissue with elastic fibers.
Collagen fibers are large and opaque

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 o Cornea
§ Transparent window continuous anteriorly with sclera
§ Connective tissue matrix containing collagen, elastic fibers
and proteoglycans
§ Layer of stratified squamous epithelium on the outer
surface. Collagen fibers are small, thus transparent
§ More proteoglycan than sclera, low water content (water
would scatter light) avascular, transparent, allows light to
enter eye, bends and refracts light
• Vascular Tunic
o Middle layer. Contains most of the blood vessels of the eye;
branches off the internal carotid arteries contains melanin
o Iris:
§ Colored part of eye
§ Controls light entering the pupil
§ Smooth muscle determines size of pupil
• Sphincter pupillae
o Parasympathetic
• Dilator pupillae
o Sympathetic
§ Cilliary body
• Produces aqueous humor that fills anterior chamber
o Ciliary muscles
§ Control lens shape
§ Smooth muscle
§ Processes attached to suspensory
ligaments of lens

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 § Choroid
• Associated with sclera
• Very thin
• Pigmented

o
• Retina
o Pigmented retina
§ Outer pigmented layer
§ Pigmented simple cuboidal epithelium

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 § Pigment of this layer and choroid help to separate sensory
cells and reduce light scattering
o Sensory retina
§ Inner layer of rod and cone cells
§ Sensitive to light
• Ophthalmoscopic view of the left retina
o Lens focuses light on macula and fovea centralis
§ Macula
• Small yellow spot
§ Fovea centralis
• Area of greatest visual acuity photoreceptor cells
tightly packed
o Optic disc: blind spot
§ Area through which blood vessels enter eye, where nerve
processes from sensory retina meet and exit from eye

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 o
• Chambers of the Eye
o Anterior compartment
§ Anterior to lens
§ Filled with aqueous humor
§ Anterior chamber
• Between cornea and iris
§ Posterior chamber
• Between iris and lens
§ Maintain intraocular pressure; supplies nutrients to
structures bathed by it
§ Contributes to refraction of light
§ Produced by ciliary process; return to venous circulation
through scleral venous sinus
§ glaucoma
• Abnormal increase in intraocular pressure
o Vitreous chamber
§ Posterior to lens
§ Filled with jelly like vitreous humor

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 § Helps maintain intraocular pressure, hold lens and retina
in place refracts light
• Lens
o Transparent and biconvex
o Anterior surface lined with simple cuboidal epithelial cells
o Posterior region contains long columnar epithelial called lens
fiber
§ Lose nuclei and other organelles
§ Crystallines
• Accumulate proteins
§ Covered by elastic, transparent capsule
• Functions of the eye
o Visible light
§ Portion of electromagnetic spectrum detected by human
eye
• 380 to 750nm
§ Refraction
• Bending of light
§ Convergence
• Light striking a convex surface
§ Focal point
• Point where light rays converge and cross
§ Focusing
• Causing light to converge
o Lens change shape causing adjustment of focal point on the
retina

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 o
• Focusing
o Emmetropia
§ Normal resting condition of lens. Ciliary muscle is relaxed.
Lens if flat
o Far point of vision
§ Point which lens does not have to thicken to focus. 20 feet
or more from eye
• Near Point of Vision
o Closer 20 ft. changes occur in lens, size of pupil and distance
between pupils
§ Accommodation
• Cilary muscles contract due to parasympathetic
input via cranial nerve 3
• Pulls choriod toward lens reducing tension on
suspensory ligaments.

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 • Lens becomes more spherical, greater refraction of
light
§ Pupil constriction
• Varies depth of focus
§ Convergence
• As objects move close to the eye, eyes are rotated
medially. Reflex contraction of the medial rectus
muscles
• Visual Acuity
o Ability to focus an image on the retina
o Myopia
§ nearsightedness; cornea/lens too powerful or eyeball too
long
§ corrected by concave lens
§ mild versions can be corrected by radial keratotomy and
LASIK

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 §
o Hyperopia
§ Farsightedness
§ Cornea/ lens too week or eyeball too short
§ Corrected by convex lens

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 o Presbyopia
§ Increase in near point of vision with age due to lee flexible
lens
o Astigmatism
§ Cornea/lens not uniformly curved so lights rays do not
focus at signle focal point
• Structure and Function of the Retina
o Neural layer
§ Three layers of neurons: photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells,
and ganglionic
• Cell bodies form nuclear layer separated by
plexiform layers, where neurons of adjacent layer
synapse with each other
o Pigmented layer
§ Single layer of cells; filled with melanin
§ With choroid, enhances visual acuity by isolating individual
photoreceptors, reducing light scattering

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 §
• Rods
o Bipolar photoreceptors cells; black and white vision
o Found over most of retina, but not in fovea. More sensitive to
light than cones
o Protein rhodopsin changes shape when struck by light and
eventually separates into its two components opsin and retinal
o Retinal can be converted to vitamin A from which it was
originally derived
o In absence of light, opsin and retinal recombine to form
rhodopsin
o Rods are unusual sensory cells: when not stimulated they are
depolarization of rods causes depolarization of bipolar cells
causing depolarization of ganglion cells
o Light and dark adaptation
§ Adjustment of eyes to change in light

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 § Happens because of changes in amount of available
rhodopsin, pupil reflexes and changes in level of
photoreceptors
§ Adjustment of eyes to changes in light happens because of
changes in amount of available rhodopsin, pupil reflexes,
and changes in level of photoreceptor function

o
• Rhodopsin cycle
o 1. Retinal (in an inactive configuration called 11-cis-) is attached
inside opsin to make rhodopsin. Cyclic GMP attached to a Na+
channel keeps it open.
o 2. Light causes retinal to change shape from 11-cis-retinal to all-
trans-retinal. This change causes opsin also to change shape
(from its dark to light configuration). This activated rhodopsin
activates a G protein (called transducin), which activates a cGMP
phosphodiesterase.
o [Link] cGMP phosphodiesterase catalyzes the conversion of
cGMP to GMP, which decreases cGMP concentration and causes
the cGMP to diffuse away from the Na+ channels, closing these
channels.

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 o 4. All-trans-retinal detaches from opsin. Transducin is
reassociated, and cGMP phosphodiesterase is inactivated.
o 5. Cyclic GMP concentration increases, and cGMP attaches to
Na+ channels, causing them to open.
o 6. All-trans-retinal is converted to 11-cis-retinal, a process that
requires energy.
o 7. 11-cis-retinal attaches to opsin, which returns to its original
(dark) configuration.

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• Rod cells hyperpolarization
1. Rod cell is unstimulated in dark conditions. Rhodopsin and the G
protein, transducin, are both inactive, and gated Na+ channels
with attached cGMP are open, allowing Na+ to enter the cell.
2. Glutamate is constantly released from the unstimulated rod cell.
3. Glutamate inhibits bipolar cells from releasing neurotransmitters
that stimulate ganglionic cells.

4.
1. Rod cell is unstimulated in dark conditions. Rhodopsin and the G
protein, transducin, are both inactive, and gated Na+ channels
with attached cGMP are open, allowing Na+ to enter the cell.
2. Glutamate is constantly released from the unstimulated rod cell.
3. Glutamate inhibits bipolar cells from releasing
neurotransmitters that stimulate ganglionic cells

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 4.
1. Exposure to light stimulates the rod cell. Rhodopsin and the
attached transducing are also activated. Transducin activates
cGMP phosphodiesterase, which catalyzes the conversion of
cGMP to GMP, closing Na+ channels. The rod cell is
hyperpolarized when Na+ no longer enters the cell.
2. Glutamate release from rod cell decreases.
3. Bipolar cells release neurotransmitters that stimulate ganglionic
cells to generate action potentials.

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 4.
• Cones
o Bipolar receptor cells
o Responsible for color vision and visual acuity
§ Numerous in fovea and macula lutea; fewer over rest of
retina
§ As light intensity decereases so does the abilty to see color
§ Iodopsin
• Visual pigment
• Three types that respond to blue red and green light
§ Overlap in response to light thus interpretation of
gradation of color possible several millions

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 §
• Inner layer of the retina
o Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells that synapse with
ganglion cells in all areas except the fovea
o Except in fovea centralis, ganglion cell axons converge at optic
disc, then exit via optic nerve then impulses travel to visual
cortex
o Fovea centralis:
§ highest visual acuity
o Rods:
§ Spatial summation.
§ One bipolar cells receives input from numerous rods, one
gngalion cell receive input from serveal bipolar cells
§ Cones exhibit little or no convergence
• Receptive fields
o Are from which a ganglion cell receives input
o Those in fovea centralis smaller than in other parts of retina

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 o Two types
§ On center ganglion cells
• Generate more action potentials when light is
directed onto the receptive field respons to intensity
of light
§ Off center ganglion cells
• More action potential when light is off or when light
does not hit center of field
• Responds to contrasts in light
o Interneurons present in inner layes and modify signal before
signal leaves retina
o Enhance borders and contours increasing intensity at borders
§ Horizontal amacrine and interplexiform cells
• Visual Pathways
1. Each visual field is divided into a temporal and a nasal half.
2. After passing through the lens, light from each half of a visual
field projects to the opposite side of the retina.
3. An optic nerve consists of axons extending from the retina to the
optic chiasm.
4. In the optic chiasm, axons from the nasal part of the retina cross
and project to the opposite side of the brain. Axons from the
temporal part of the retina do not cross.
5. An optic tract consists of axons that have passed through the
optic chiasm (with or without crossing) to the thalamus.
6. The axons synapse in the lateral geniculate nuclei of the
thalamus. Collateral branches of the axons in the optic tracts
synapse in the superior colliculi.

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 7. An optic radiation consists of axons from thalamic neurons that
project to the visual cortex.

o
8. The right part of each visual field (dark green and light blue) projects
to the left side of the brain, and the left part of each visual field (light
green and dark blue) projects to the right side of the brain.

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 • Visual Pathways
o Binocular vision
§ Visual field partially overlap yielding depth perception

§
• Eye Disorders
o Myopia:
§ Nearsightedness.
§ Focal point too near lens, image focused in front of retina.
o Hyperopia:
§ Farsightedness.
§ Image focused behind retina.
o Presbyopia.
§ Degeneration of accommodation, corrected by reading
glasses.
o Astigmatism:
§ Cornea or lens not uniformly curved.
o Retinal detachment.
§ Can result in complete blindness.

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 o Glaucoma.
§ Increased intraocular pressure by aqueous humor buildup.
o Cataract.
§ Clouding of lens.
o Macular degeneration.
§ Common in older people, loss in acute vision.
o Diabetes.
§ Dysfunction of peripheral circulation.
• 15.4
o Divided into external, middle, and inner ear
§ External and middle: hearing
• Auricle or pinna: elastic cartilage covered with skin
• External auditory canal: lined with hair and
ceruminous glands. Produce cerumen
• Tympanic membrane
o Thin membrane of two layer of epithelium
with connective tissue between
o Sound waves cause it to vibrate
o Border between external and middle ear
§ Internal: hearing and Equilibrium

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 o
• Auditory structures and their functions
o Middle ear
§ Separated from the inner ear by the oval and round
windows
§ Two passages for air
• Auditory or Eustachian tube:
o Opens into pharynx, equalizes pressure
o Passage to mastoid air cells in mastoid process
§ Ossicles:
• Malleus, incus, stapes: transmit vibrations from
eardrum to oval window
§ Oval window:
• Connection between middle and inner ear.

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 • Foot of stapes rests here and is held in place by
annular ligament

o
• Inner ear
o Bony labyrinth
§ Tunnel and chambers in the temporal bone
§ Cochlea
• Hearing
§ Vestibule
• Balance
§ Semicircular canals
• Balance
o Membrane labyrinth
§ Membranous tunnels and chambers suspended in the
bony labyrinth
o Fluids
§ Endolymph
• In membranous labyrinth

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 § Perilymph
• In spaces between membranous labyrinth and
periosteum of bony labyrinth

o
• Inner ear 2
o Oval window communicates with vestibule which communicates
with the Scala vestibuli of the cochlea
o Scala vestibuli extends from oval window to helicotrema at
cochlear apex
o Second cochlear chamber (Scala tympani) from helicotrema to
round window

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 o Scala vestibuli and Scala tympani filled with perilymphn

o
o Wall of scala vestibuli is vestibular membrane
o Wall of scala tympani is basilar membrane
o Cochlear duct (scala media)
§ Space between vestibular and basilar membranes
§ Filled with endolymph
o Width of basilar membrane increases from .004mm near oval
membrane to .5mm near helicotrema
§ Near oval window basilar membrane responds to high
frequency vibrations
§ Near helicotrema responds to low frequency vibrations
o Spiral organ ( organ of Corti)
§ Cells in cochlear duct
o Contains hair cells (sensory cells) with hair like projections at the
apical ends called stereocilia
§ Tips of inner hair cells embedded in tectorial membrane

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 o Basilar region of hair cells covered by synaptic terminals of
sensory neurons
o Cells bodies of afferent neurons grouped into cochlear (spiral)
ganglion
o Afferent fibers form the cochlear nerve
• Cochlear

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 o

o
• Inner Ear
o Hair cells arranged in rows of inner hair cells (responsible for
hearing) and outer hair cells (regulate tension on basilar
membrane).
o Hair bundle: stereocilia of one inner hair cell.

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 o Tip link (gating spring) attaches tip of each stereocilium in a hair
bundle to the side of the next longer stereocilium.
o As stereocilia bend, they open K+ gates (mechanically gated ion
channel).

o
• Action of the tip link to open a K+ channel when two stereocilia bend

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 • Auditory Function
o Vibrations produce sounds waves
§ Volume or loudness
• Function of wave amplitude
§ Pitch
• Function of wave frequency
§ Timbre
• Resonance quality or overtones of sound
• Sounds waves

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 o
• Process of hearing
o External ear
§ Collects sounds waves, conducts through external auditory
canal
o Middle ear
§ Tympanic membrane vibrates, ossicles vibrate, vibrations
transferred to oval window
§ Tensor tympani
§ and stapedius muscles reflexively dampan excessively loud
sounds
• Sounds attenuation reflex
o Inner ear
§ Vibration of perilymph causes vestibular membrane to
vibrate which causes vibrations in endolymph
§ Basilar membrane displaced detected by hair cells
§ Vibrations in Scala tympani dissipated by movement of
round window
• Effect of sound waves on cochlear structures

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 o
• Effect of sounds wave on points along the basilar membrane
o Differect frequency sounds cause maximum vibrations of
different regions of basilar membrane
§ High pitch near base
§ Low pitch near apex

o
• Sensitivity of hearing

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 o Fine-tuning tension on basilar membrane.
§ More than 90% of afferent axons of the cochlear ganglion
synapse with inner hair cells, 10 to 30/hair cells.
§ A few small-diameter afferent axons synapse with rows of
outer hair cells.
§ Outer hair cells receive efferent input causing them to
shorten.
o Tuning hair cells to specific frequencies.
§ Actin filaments in hair cells attach to K+ gated channels
and can move them along the cell membrane and tighten
or loosen the spring. Hair cells tuned to very specific
frequencies.
o Localization of pitch along the cochlea.
§ Afferent cochlear nerve fibers send action potentials to
superior olivary nucleus in medulla oblongata. These are
compared to one another and strongest is taken as
standard.
§ Efferent action potentials inhibit other action potentials.
Action potentials from maximum vibration go to cortex
and are perceived.
• Central nervous system pathways for hearing
1. Sensory axons from the cochlear ganglion terminate in the
cochlear nucleus in the brainstem.
2. Axons from the neurons in the cochlear nucleus project to the
superior olivary nucleus or to the inferior colliculus.
3. Axons from the inferior colliculus project to the medial
geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.
4. Thalamic neurons project to the auditory cortex.

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 5. Neurons in the superior olivary nucleus send axons to the
inferior colliculus, back to the inner ear, or to motor nuclei in the
brainstem that send efferent fibers to the middle ear muscles.

•
• Balance
• Static labyrinth: utricle and saccule of the vestibule.
§ Evaluates position of head relative to gravity.
§ Detects linear acceleration and deceleration
(as in a car).
§ Utricle has macula oriented parallel to base of skull.
§ Saccula has macula oriented perpendicular to base of skull.
§ Macula: specialized epithelium of supporting columnar
cells and hair cells with numerous stereocilia (microvilli)
and one cilium (kinocilium) embedded in gelatinous mass
weighted by otoliths.

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 • Gelatinous mass moves in response to gravity
bending
hair cells and initiating action potentials.
• Otoliths stimulate hair cells with varying frequencies.
• Patterns of stimulation translated by brain into
specific information about head position or
acceleration.
• Dynamic labyrinth: semicircular canals.
§ Evaluates movement of the head in three dimensional
space.
• Structure of the utricular and saccular maculae

•
• Function of the vestibule in maintaining balance

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 •

74
 •
• Dynamic Labyrinth
• Three semicircular canals filled with endolymph: transverse
plane, coronal plane, sagittal plane.
• Base of each expanded into ampulla with sensory epithelium
(crista ampullaris).
• Cupula suspended over crista hair cells. Acts as a float displaced
by fluid movements within semicircular canals.
• Displacement of the cupula is most intense when the rate of
head movement changes, thus this system detects changes in
the rate of movement rather than movement alone.

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 •
• Central nervous system pathways for balance
1. Sensory axons from the vestibular ganglion pass through the
vestibular nerve to the vestibular nucleus, which also receives
input from several other sources, such as proprioception from
the legs.
2. Vestibular neurons send axons to the cerebellum, which
influences postural muscles.
3. Vestibular neurons also send axons to motor nuclei (oculomotor,
trochlear, and abducens), which control extrinsic eye muscles.
4. Vestibular neurons also send axons to the posterior ventral
nucleus of the thalamus.
5. Thalamic neurons project to the vestibular area of the cortex.

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 •
• 15.5 Effects of aging on the special senses
• Slight loss in ability to detect odors.
• Decreased sense of taste.
• Lenses of eyes lose flexibility.
• Development of cataracts, macular degeneration, glaucoma,
diabetic retinopathy.
• Decline in visual acuity and color perception.

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