CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPTS

Information Technology (IT): Is the science which supports activities involving the creation,
storage, manipulation and communication of information, together with their related methods,
management and applications. Therefore, information technology is the broadly based technology
needed to support information systems (IS).

Information System (IS): Is a set of interrelated components such as computers that collect, process,
retrieve, store and disseminate or distribute information to support decision-making in an organization.

Data: This is a term used to describe raw facts & figures about the routine activities of an
organization. Examples include, number of hours worked by an employee, rate of pay per employee,
number of programs produced per hour etc.

Information: Information is obtained by assembling items of data into a meaningful form. It’s the end
results of assembled/processed data into a meaningful form.

A computer: is a general-purpose machine that processes data according to a set of instructions that
are stored internally either temporarily or permanently.
The instructions that tell it what to do are called "software." A set of instructions that perform a
particular task is called a "program" or "software program."
Computer hardware: refers to any physical component on the computer such as the casing,
Motherboard RAM, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, keyboard, monitor, cables, speaker, Mize etc.
Software is a set of instructions written by a programmer such that when executed a particular task is
accomplished, examples include system software, application software and utility software

Software describes the programs that are used to operate the computer system or software that are used
to make hardware useable.

Device driver is software that supports a particular hardware so that communication between the
hardware and the computer can be achieved.

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 A Brief History of Computers

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
Each generation has dramatically expanded computer processing power and storage capabilities while
simultaneously lowering costs. These generation changes in computer hardware have been
accompanied by generation changes in computer software that have made computers increasingly more
powerful, in expensive, and easy to use.

First generation: Vacuum Tube Technology, 1946 – 1956

 The 1st generation of computers relied on vacuum tubes to store and process
information. In electronics, vacuum tube, electron tube (in North America), tube,
or valve (in British English) is a device that controls electric current through a
vacuum in a sealed container.
 These tubes were huge in size, consumed a great deal of power, were short-lived
and generated a great deal of heat.
 1st generation computer had extremely limited Memory and processing capability
and were used for very limited scientific and engineering work.
 The maximum main memory size was in 2000 bytes (2 kilo bytes) with a spread of
10 kilo instructions per second.
 Rotating magnetic drums were used for internal storage and punched cards for
external storage
 Jobs such as running programs or printing output had to be coordinated manually
 Machine and assembly languages

Second Generation: Transistors, 1957 – 1963

 Here, transistors replaced vacuum tubes as the devices for storing the processed
information – more reliable. A transistor is a semiconductor device used to
amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of
semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit.(Base. emitter and collector)
 They were smaller and more reliable than vacuum tubes; they generated less
heat, and consumed less power.

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  Magnetic core memory was the primary storage technology. It composed of
small magnetic doughnuts (about 1 millimeter in diameter), which would be
polarized in one of two direction to represent a bit of data. Wires were strung
along and through these cores to both write and read data.
 2nd generation computers had up to 32 kilobytes of RAM memory with speed
reaching 200,000 to 300,000 instructions per second (20 to 30)
 2nd generation, computers had enough memory and processing power to be used
more widely for scientific work and for business tasks such as automating
payroll and billing
 Magnetic tape common external storage
 Punched cards and magnetic tapes for 1/P and O/P
 HLL(high level languages) for example FORTRAIN, CO BOL, BASIC
 Human operator to handle punched cards

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits, 1964-74

 3rd generation computers relied on integrated circuits which were made by printing hundreds
and later thousands of tiny transistors on small silicon chips, these devices were called semi-
conductors. An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip, is a
semiconductor wafer (thin) on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, and
transistors are fabricated. An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter,
computer memory, or microprocessor.
 Computer memory expanded to 2 megabytes of RAM memory and speed accelerated to 5
million instructions per second.
 3rd generation computer technology introduced software that could be used by people without
extensive technology, technical training, making it possible for computer to enlarge their role in
business.
 Improve disk storage – more HLL including Pascal

Fourth Generation: Very large-scale integrated circuits, 1980 – present.

 The 4th Generation. Extends from 1980 to the present. Computers in this period use very
large-scale integrated circuits (VLSIC), which are packed with hundreds of thousands and of
ten millions of circuits per chip

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  With VLSIC technology, the computer memory chip, hence the name microprocessor, or
computer on a chip.
 Microprocessor technology has put the power of a computer that one that took up a large room
into a small desktop or laptop computer, making computers in expensive and widely available
for use in organizations and everyday life.
 Computer memory size has mushroomed to the gigabyte range in large commercial machines,
processing speeds have exceed one billion instructions per second.

Fifth Generation: (Future)

 Development of true artificial intelligence.
 There are predictions that the next generation of computers will be able to initiate the human
sense.
Disadvantages:
 Costly
 Due to rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can
become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
 Changing from the old system, the manual system is a gradual process during which there is
interruption in the normal working environment.
 There is usually the fear that installing the computer into an organization might result in
replacing some human employees

Computer Classification
(a) By Use:
Personal Computers (PCs)
These are microcomputers designed for independent use by individuals at work or at home
mainly for various purposes. Used in the production of office documents. For example letters,
memos, contract etc
Desk –Top Computers
This refers to any computer designed for use on a desk in an office environment.t
Laptop/notebook computer
This is a PC sufficiently small enough for its user to use it on his laps or carry around. They
operate on a main electricity supply or by a re-change battery, they are easily portable.

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 Laptop

Work stations
These are computers that have in built capability inter-connection and operation with other
computers on a network.
A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
This is a handheld microcomputer that is small in size and has greater portability.

(b) By Purpose:
Special purpose:
 Designed for a particular job and solve problems of a restricted nature. For example computer
use in digital watches, petrol pumps etc.
General Purpose
 Designing to solve wide variety of problems.
(c) By size:
(i) Super computer

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A super computer is the most powerful computer with the highest processing power and most
expensive. It’s used for reproducing nuclear bomb explosion and global weather patterns.
Diagram of a super computer

(ii) Main Frame Computers

A Mainframe computer is simply a very large computer and totally different from what you have
on your desk.

Mainframe is an industry term for a large computer. The name comes from the way the machine is build up: all
units (processing, communication etc.) were hung into a frame. Thus the main computer is built into a frame,
therefore: Mainframe. Mainframes are typically manufactured by large companies such as IBM, Amdahl,
Hitachi. Their main purpose is to run commercial applications of Fortune 1000 businesses and other
large-scale computing purposes. Think here of banking and insurance businesses where enormous
amounts of data are processed, typically (at least) millions of records, each day.
But what classifies a computer as a mainframe?
 A mainframe has 1 to 16 CPU's (modern machines more)
 Memory ranges from 128 Mb over 8 Gigabyte on line RAM

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  Its processing power ranges from 80 over 550 MBPS
 It had often different cabinets for
o Storage, I/O, RAM
 Separate processes (program) for Task management, Program management, Job management,
Serialization, Catalogs, Inter address space, Communication
Therefore Main Frame Computers are:
 Large general-purpose computers with extensive processing storage input and output
capabilities large-scale data processing is carried out on the mainframe.
 Specialized environment required.
 Technical support
 Large number of simultaneous users
 Large memory and storage capacity
 Physically large and expensive
 Supporting corporate database
 Very powerful and can process large amounts of data at very high speeds.
 Support time sharing/multiprogramming without the realization of the users.
 Examples: IBM system /370’s
 Used by larger organization for example banks, ministries.
(iii) Mini Computer:
Is a mid-sized computer, usually fitting within a single cabinet about the size of a refrigerator, that has
less memory than a mainframe. It is a computer of a size intermediate between a microcomputer and a
mainframe computer,
History: The term “minicomputer” evolved in the 1960s to describe the “small” third generation
computers that became possible with the use of transistor and core memory technologies.
In general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200
users simultaneously

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Mini Computers are:
 Smaller compared to mainframe computers
 Mainly used for special purpose/small scale general purpose.
 Medium scale data processing required.
 A Number of them can be connected together to give combined power of a main frame
 Front end processors handling communications.
 They support several users at the same time i.e. several work stations (terminals) are connected
to one central minicomputer whose resources for example CPU time, storage etc are shared
among the users connected.
 They are powerful and reliable than the micros though lower than the mainframes computers
capability.
 More costly than the micro’s though cheaper than the mainframes
 Are used mainly in medium scale businesses for example insurance company’s banks etc, for
operation like processing, data bases, accounting routines etc.
 Their heat emission is low, a factor which enables them to be installed in a less protected
environment.

(iv) Micro – Computers/personal

A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit. Another general
characteristic of these computers is that they occupy physically small amounts of space when
compared to mainframe and minicomputers. Many microcomputers (when equipped with a keyboard
and screen for input and output) are also personal computers
Origin: The term "Microcomputer" came into popular use after the introduction of the minicomputer.
Most notably, the microcomputer replaced the many separate components that made up the
minicomputer's CPU with a single integrated microprocessor chip.
However, as microprocessors and semiconductor memory became less expensive from the early-to-
mid-1970s onwards, microcomputers in turn grew faster and cheaper. This resulted in an explosion in
their popularity during the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Description: Monitors, keyboards and other devices for input and output may be integrated or
separate. Computer memory in the form of RAM, and at least one other less volatile, memory storage
device are usually combined with the CPU on a system bus in a single unit. Other devices that make up
a complete microcomputer system include, batteries, a power supply unit, a keyboard and various

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input/output devices used to convey information to and from a human operator (printers, monitors,
human interface devices). Microcomputers are designed to serve only a single user at a time, although
they can often be modified with software or hardware to concurrently serve more than one user.
Microcomputers fit well on or under desks or tables, so that they are within easy access of the user.
Bigger computers like minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers take up large cabinets or even
a dedicated room.
After the 1981 release by IBM of their IBM PC, the term Personal Computer became generally used
for microcomputers compatible with the IBM PC architecture (PC compatible).
The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the IBM PC, is the original version and
progenitor of the IBM PC compatible hardware platform, because of the success of the IBM Personal
Computer the term came to mean more specifically a microcomputer compatible with IBM's PC
products

Micro computers are:

 Smaller computer where various integrated circuit and elements of computers are replaced by a
single integrated circuits. Called a chip.
 Comprises of visual display unit, keyboard, mouse and CPU
 Random access memory of – 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 MB and above
 Pentium processor speed 133 MHz
 Their internal memory is smaller in size and cheaper than that of mini and mainframe
computers.
 Used in the production of documents, purchasing production accounting etc.
Digital Computers: They are called so because they process data information of discrete (0’1) values.
Most of the computers in use today are digital computers and discrete values occur at each step of
operation.

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Analog Computer: Resembles the measuring instruments such as thermometers and voltmeters. They
process data in the forms of variation in physical variable such as electrical voltages, sound, light,
radio waves etc.

THE COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware describes the physical components making up the computer and its associated face
lines
Computer external hardware components attached to a printer

Peripheral devices
These refer to computer components that are connected to the system unit using data interface cables.
Such components include:
i. Input devices such as mice, keyboards, etc
ii. Output devices such as monitors, printers, etc
iii. Auxiliary/ secondary storage devices such as disk drives, etc

The hardware components of a computer system include:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Input devices
3. Output devices
4. Motherboard

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 5. Memory (primary and secondary storage)
6. Storage devices
1) The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is a microprocessor that executes instruction to perform processing tasks (a microprocessor is
a device that controls the overall operations of a computer, that is, the “brain” of the computer)
The CPU is the most complex and powerful part of a computer; and it has the following components;
a) Control Unit
b) Arithmetic – Logic Unit
c) Registers
Functions of the CPU in terms of Components:
a) Control Unit:
This is designed to perform the following:
 To supervise the operation of the entire computer. This is affected by the use of the
wires (circuitry) that connects all parts of the system to the central control board.
 It monitors the peripheral devices i.e. card reader, line printer, tape driver, etc. For
example it tells the disk drive when to read data and the printer when to print a line of
output (it decodes (interprets instructions).
 It provides a system for storing and remembering the instructions in programs, opens
and closes circuits that feed data to and from storage. (it accesses program instructions)
 It’s also responsible for synchronizing and coordination, that is controls flow of data
throughout the system. Data flow through paths called buses.
b) Arithmetic-Logic Unit:
 This is designed to perform computation on data for example in order to prepare a payroll,
it’s necessary to compute gross wages, deductions, etc.
 It also performs comparisons on data, that is, compares numerical and non-numerical values
and makes decisions.
 When arithmetic is to be performed, numbers are read into temporary holding station called
register. These numbers from several registers may be added after calculation and data is
either output or retained to the computer storage.
c) Register:
 A register is a temporary storage area used to hold instructions and data currently being
processed by the control unit or the ALU

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  It has high speed storage areas
 It holds data and instructions until it’s processed.
2) Input Devices:
Inputting refers to the process of entering instructions or data into a computer
 Input device are gadgets that are used to enter instructions/data into the computer, to the
Central Processing Unit. Data fed may be in form of graphics, sound or characters
 Examples of input devices include touch screens, keyboard, mouse, digital cameras, light pens,
joy stick, scanner, voice recognition equipment, ATMs. Sensors, etc.
Mouse:
 This is the device used in on-screen graphics and alternative or a supplement to using the
keyboard to enter instructions. It’s basically used to move the cursor to different positions on
the screen.
 Examples of types of mice include the desktop mouse as desktop computers, track ball mouse
used on laptop and the touch pad mouse common on most modern computers.
Keyboard:
 A typical keyboard has 102/105 or more keys and it was developed from the standard
QWERTY typewriters. Keyboards are designed to create special standard electronic codes
when a key is pressed, its used for entering data into the computer, it can be used without a
mouse
Optical Character Recognition (OCR):
 This is a method of input involving a machine that is able to recognize ordinary characters by
optical detection of the shape characters.
 Optical scanners can read printed, typed and some hand written documents
 Recognize the characters; convert them into machine code and record them on to the magnetic
medium being used or directly input the data to the CPU.
Joy Stick:
 Commonly used in modern computer games
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction
to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or
more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick
used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick.

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Scanner:
 Scanners utilize SOCR (stand-alone optical character reader) and can be used to input
documents. A document is fed into the scanner which passes a light bond along the page.
 A scanner converts text or images on paper documents into electronic format that the computer can
display, print or store (soft copy)
Bar Cording and Electronic Point of Sale (EPS)
 More and more large retail stores are introducing EPS devices using bar coding, which act both
as cash registers and as terminal connected to a main computer.
 This enables the computer to produce useful management information such as sales retails and
analysis and stock control information very quickly.
Barcode Readers Bar codes

The Barcode Reader: is used for reading black and white lines printed on certain products such as
books, boxes called bar codes i.e. to capture the serial No, country of origin, item type etc
Card Reading Devices:
 These card-reading devices include magnetic strip cards normally for security purposes.
 These card-reading devices include magnetic strip cards where one face of the card contains the
name of the issuer the payments system. The card applies to (e.g. VISA) and often a hologram
image for security purposes. The customer’s name, the card number and the card expiry date
also appear.

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Example: The widest application of magnetic strip cards is as a bank credit or service cards, for use in
automated teller machines (ATMs) and bank payment systems
 Other card reaching devices include Electronic Funds Transfer at the Point of Sale (EFTPOS).
Customers in shops and at petrol stations can use a plastic card (usually a credit card or debit
card) to purchase goods and services, and using an EFTKPOS terminal in the shop, the
customer’s credit card account or bank current account will be debited automatically.
 Another card reading device is the smart card.
Touch Screens:
These are screens that can sense when a particular part of the screen is pressed and hence respond
accordingly. They are common with security systems and mobile phones
Voice Recognition Equipment:
These include all types of microphones which are used to capture sound e.g. musicians use multimedia
computers to edit and record (computerize their musical tracks).

Light Pens:
Used in high technical designs and have beam of light that is radiated onto different parts of
specialized screen to input data
Digital Cameras:
These take photographs like any other camera. The image is stored and later downloaded onto a PC for
further editing and or printing.
3) Output Devices
 Output devices accept output from a processing device and convert it into a form which is
usable by the computer’s human operators, these are peripheral devices used by a computer to
give out information after being processed
 Computers output information in various forms namely through text, sound, graphics
- The most common output devices include Monitors, Speakers, Printers, Plotters, projector
 The main hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters while main softcopy output devices
include the monitor, touch screen, camera output on microfilms and sounds output systems.
Printers:
A printer is an electromechanical device which converts the text and graphical documents from
electronic form to the physical form.

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 Printers print characters, symbols and graphics on print medium which include paper, cloths, some
plastics, material used in bill boards etc.
Softcopy: refers to the intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or speakers.
Hardcopy: refers to tangible output mostly printed on papers by printers
There are two types of printers
i) Impact printers and (ii) Non-impact printers

Impact printers
These produce a hard copy output by the printing mechanism physically striking the printing media such
as paper or cloth
Such printers are very noisy during their operation

Impact printers

Examples of impact printers

 Dot matrix printers (e.g. Epson printer)
 Daisy wheel printers
Non-impact printers
These produce a hard copy output without the printing mechanism physically striking the printing
media such as paper or cloth
Such printers are quieter during their operation
Examples of Non-impact printers include

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 • Laser jet, DeskJet, Thermal jet
LaserJet printer
DeskJet printer

Plotters:
 They have a pen-like head that can accurately draw straight, thin and meandering lines; hence
they are compared to line printers.
 They are suitable for architectural drawings/ drawing big charts such as maps, pictures and
drawings wiring diagrams etc

Plotter

Monitor/Visual Display Units (VDUs);

 The monitor displays input as text, letters and numbers or in graphical form to allow an
operator to carry out a visual check on what he or she typed in, it may display in color black
and white (monochrome).
 Monitors/VDUs may be based on cathode ray tubes, liquids displays or gas plasma display

Projectors: is an output device used to display information on a wider surface

Speakers: Speakers produce sound outputs
 The quality of output from speakers is measured in watt power.
Factors to consider when choosing an output device:
 Cost ,Quality of output, Speed (processing speed), Volume of output, Compatibility with
existing computer, Hardware, Accuracy , Efficiency, Obsolesce

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 4) Motherboard: The motherboard is the main circuit board inside the PC. Every component at
some point communicates through the motherboard, either by directly plugging into it or by
communicating through one of the motherboards ports. The motherboard is one big communication
highway. Its purpose is to provide a platform for all the other components and peripherals to
communicate to each other. Rear view of the motherboard

Types of Motherboards
The type of motherboards depends on the CPU it was designed for. One can therefore categories
motherboards by which socket type they have. e.g. Socket A, Socket 478 etc. The Type of
motherboard you buy is very important, as it will need to house your CPU, and they are not
interchangeable. When buying a motherboard, it will always tell you what socket type it has.
The major difference between motherboards that support the same CPU is the model of the chipset.
Different chipsets offer different performance and different features in terms of memory support, AGP
port speed, Multiplier numbers, Bus speeds and much more.

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 Motherboard Chipset

A motherboard chipset controls all the data that flows through the data channels (buses) of the
motherboard. The primary function of the motherboard chipset is to direct this data to the correct areas
of the motherboard, and therefore the correct components.

Components of a Motherboard
The motherboard contains many connections for all types of components. Motherboards contain
expansion slots such as the ISA, PCI, AGP and DIMM sockets. It also contains external connections
for your onboard sound card, USB ports, Serial and Parallel ports, PS/2 ports for your keyboard and
mouse as well as network and Fire wire connections.
Function of the motherboard on the computer
A motherboard is also known as a main board, system board and logic board. They can be found in a
variety of electrical devices, ranging from a TV to a computer. Generally, they will be referred to as a
motherboard or a main board; it is the central circuit board of the computer. All other components and
peripherals plug into it, and the job of the motherboard is to relay information between them all.
Despite the fact that a better motherboard will not add to the speed of your PC, it is none-the-less
important to have one that is both stable and reliable, as its role is vital.
A motherboard houses the BIOS (Basic Input/output System), which is the simple software run by a
computer when initially turned on. Other components attach directly to it include the memory, CPU
(Central Processing Unit), graphics card, sound card, hard-drive, disk drives, along with various
external ports and peripherals.

5) Memory (primary and secondary storage)

Types of Memory
a) Primary Storage/Main /physical Memory:
 This resides in the computer. It’s composed of magnetic storage device or semiconductor
devices e.g. RAM and ROM.
 The main memory is a temporary storage area that holds things like;
(i) Information you are working with,
(ii) The running application software
(iii) The operating system software.
Advantages of Primary Storage:
 Data can be retrieved from the primary memory storage for reuse in a short time.
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  Data can easily be accessed by the control unit since access is random and each item can be
found in its memory location easily
Disadvantages:
 It keeps data for a short period in case of power failure
 A large primary/main memory capacity is expensive
The Computer Memory:
 Memory also known as main store, internal store or immediate access storage, is a circuit
which is used to store data temporarily within the PC while the computer is operating.
 The transfer of data such as program instructions within memory is faster than the transfer of
data between the CPU and peripheral devices however; a computer’s memory is limited in its
size and can only hold a certain volume of data at a time.
 The two types of memory are Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory
(ROM).

i) Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Is the memory that is directly available to the CPU. It holds data and programs in current use.
Data can be written on to or read from random access memory.
 RAM in microcomputers is “volatile” which means that contents of the memory are erased
when the computer’s power is switched off.
 RAM can be defined as memory with the ability to access any location in any order with the
same speed, Random Access Memory is an essential requirement for the computer
 RAM capacities ranges from 8mb, 16mb, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512mb, 1GB, etc.

RAM stores information temporarily.

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(ii) Read-only Memory (ROM)
 It’s a memory chip in which fixed data is written permanently at the time of its manufacture.
New data cannot be written into this memory, and so the data on the memory chip is
unchangeable and irremovable.
 The data on a ROM chip will consist of items of software, such as the start-up programs/BIOS
settings and various pieces of translators (programmed) software
 ROM is “non-volatile” memory, which means that it’s contents, do not disappear when the
computer’s power source is switched off.

ROM stores information permanently.

iii) Cache Memory:
 This is an additional memory which may be inserted between the CPU and the main memory.
Cache memory facilitates access to the main memory and supplements its functions
 Cache memory provides space for temporary storage of frequently used/accessed data e.g. user
names and passwords and makes the PC more efficient.
iv) Virtual Memory:
Virtual memory is the use of space on a hard disk drive (HDD) to simulate additional main memory.
Memory is used to hold portions of the operating system, programs and data that are currently in use or
that are frequently used. Physically, main memory (also referred to as primary memory) consists of
random access memory (RAM) chips that are combined into modules which, in turn, are inserted into
slots on the motherboard (i.e., the main circuit board) on a computer. The times required to access
different addresses (i.e., locations) in RAM are extremely short and nearly equal, in contrast to the
varying delay times for accessing locations on the HDD and other storage devices.
In order to free up space in memory, an operating system with a virtual memory capability transfers
data that is not immediately needed from memory to the HDD; when that data is needed again, it is
copied back into memory. That is, when all of the RAM is being used (e.g., if there are many programs
open simultaneously or if one very large program is in use), a computer with virtual memory enabled

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will swap data to the HDD and back to memory as needed, thus, in effect, increasing the total system
memory.
Virtual memory permits software to run in a memory space (i.e., a logical memory) whose size is
greater than the computer's RAM. Most personal computers sold today contain from 256MB to
1024MB of RAM. While this is huge in comparison to what was common just a few years ago, it is
still often insufficient to simultaneously run all of the programs that users attempt to run. The reason is
that the size of many programs has continued to increase accompanying the growth in memory sizes
and HDD capacities, largely in order to add more features (including fancier graphics).
It’s a temporary storage used by a computer to run programs that need more memory than it has.

b) Permanent/Secondary Storage
Permanent storage is also known as Auxiliary storage or secondary storage device.
Secondary storage devices refer to materials that provide long-term storage to computer held
information.
Secondary storage devices are sub-divided into two categories:
1. Magnetic storage devices
2. Optical storage devices

Magnetic storage devices: These use magnetic material to store information

They include Floppy disks (Diskettes), Hard disks, Magnetic tapes, Zip disks, flash disk
Optical disks: These use a laser beam to record and read data.
They include: Compact discs (CD), Digital Versatile Discs (DVD), Optical card, Optical tape
Advantages of Secondary Storage:
1. It’s cheaper than primary storage for example it’s cheaper to buy and store data in a magnetic
media than in main memory.
2. Huge storage capacity, can storage large amount of data than primary storage
3. They facilitate easy movement of data stored electronically.
4. Data stored in secondary storage is safe from hazards
5. Non-volatile storage of data and instructions, i.e. when data is stored, content does not
disappear when power is switched off.

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6) Secondary Storage devices
(I) Disks:
 Disks are covered on both sides with a magnetic material. They are storage devices which
provide direct access to data stored on them (data stored is such that, its read or retrieved in a
constant time).
 The disks include; the hard disk, floppy disks and flash disks.
(a) Hard disk
 Is a type of magnetic disk for data storage. A modern business PC invariably has an internal
hard disk incorporated inside the microcomputer.
 The hard disk provides permanent storage in computer and has much larger storage capacity
than floppy disk or CD-ROM and is used to store the operator software and main applications
software as well as files
 Its capacity can range from 10GB, 20GB, 40GB, 80GB, 120G, etc.

Advantages of Using Hard Disks:

 The data in hard disk is always secure since they are easily portable.
 It provides permanent storage in the PC
 Has a large storage capacity
 The speed and time of data access is fast and convenient.

Disadvantages of using Hard Disks:

 Hard disks are expansive; they are in a metallic enclosure.
 Hard disks also can fail because of poor handling for example violent shaking.
 Virus attacks are also likely.

(b) Floppy Disks:

 This is an exchangeable circular, flexible disk (typically 3 ½ inches in diameter) which is
permanently in a plastic case. It holds up to 1.44 Mb of data.

Advantages of Using Floppy Disks:

 Their size is acceptable with a diameter of 3 ½ inches.
 Its circular nature makes it easier for data to be accessed from any sector in a short time.
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  Mode of access is random access compared to tapes which require unwinding before accessing
all the data.
 Their storage capacity is considerably bigger.
 They are easily portable.

Disadvantages of Using Floppy Disks:

 They have a very limited storage capacity compared to hard disks.
 They are subject to physical wear because the read/write head actually comes into contact with
the disk surface during operation.
 They are also prone to physical damage, hence need for careful handling.
 Less reliable than hard disk, since data can easily be lost once the magnetic media is exposed to
a magnetic field.

(c) Zip Disks:

 A zip disk is similar in appearance to a standard floppy disk, but is thicker.
 Zip disks can store 100Mb of data on a single disk, but can only be used in conjunction with
special zip drives. They are suitable for backup, archiving and for moving files between
computers.

(ii) Tape Storage:

 This stores data on magnetic tape.
 They are like an audio or video cassette; data has to be recorded along the length of a computer
tape. Tapes are now primary used for backing up data.
 Tape cartridges have a much larger capacity than floppy disks and are widely used as a backing
storage medium with capacity of 15GB, 20GB and above.
 They are relatively stable, and cheap

Disadvantages:
 Tapes can easily get lost or the data on them can be corrupted.
 Because it stores data sequentially, it’s relatively slow compared with the speed of other
secondary storage devices i.e. hard disk.

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(iii) CD-ROM (Disk Read Only Memory)
 This is the most common kind of optical disk storage for imaging reference and data base
application.
 They use similar technology to the laser based compact of audio system. They can hold more
data than floppy disks, capacity is 700MB.

Advantages of CD-ROM
 The storage capacity is high compared to floppy disks (300 times higher than floppy disks)
 The initials ROM stand for Read Only Memory, the subsequent users can only retrieve
information, they cannot alter or overwrite or delete what is already on the disk hence difficult
to alter data written on it.
 They are small in size, hence they easily store information and easily portable.

Disadvantages:
 More expensive than the floppy disks.
 They are read only storage.
 Breakage or a single scratch on a disk can render the whole disk useless.

(iv) DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)

 This is sometimes referred to as Digital Video Disk. Disk format for storing digital information.
 Pre-recorded DVDs have a storage capacity of 4.7 gigabytes (14 times the capacity of CDs).
 Data is read optically using a laser as the disk rotates popular for multimedia applications
particularly feature film
 Access speeds have improved as well as sound and video quality
 DVDs are good for video graphics and sound storage and they are believed to replace CD-
ROMS, audio CDs, Laser disks etc.

Computer Performance:
Computer performance is characterized by the amount of useful work accomplished by a computer
system compared to the time and resources used.

Depending on the context, good computer performance may involve one or more of the following:

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  Short response time for a given piece of work,
Response time is the time a system or functional unit takes to react to a given input
 High throughput (rate of processing work)
In communication networks, such as Ethernet or packet radio, throughput or network throughput
is the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel. These data may be
delivered over a physical or logical link, or pass through a certain network node. The throughput is
usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps), and sometimes in data packets per second or data
packets per time slot.

 Low utilization of computing resource(s), A resource, or system resource, is any physical or

virtual component of limited availability within a computer system i.e. memory, hard disk,
processor etc
 Fast (or highly compact) data compression, Compression shrinks data to reduce storage
capacity and decompression
 High bandwidth / short data transmission time, is a rate of data transfer, throughput or bit rate,
measured in bits per second (kbps)
Factors that determine computer performance
There are mainly three factors these include: Microprocessor, RAM, available hard disk free space

 Processor speed i.e. of 2 GHz and above

 Available RAM i.e. 512 MB and above either DDR or DDR2 or DDR3 etc
 Available Hard drive free space i.e. 1GB

Computer Security

These are measures and controls that ensure confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the
information processed and stored in a computer. Computer security covers all the processes and
mechanisms by which equipment, information and services are protected from unintended or
unauthorized access, change or destruction and the process of applying security measures to ensure
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data both in transit and at rest

The Internet could be described as an information channel, where data of every kind flows. Some of
this data will be valuable or sensitive in some ways, and hence needs to be protected as it flows
through the Internet's computers.

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Threats to computer security
Keeping information private depends on keeping computer systems safe from criminals, natural
hazards and other threats.
Computer criminals:
A computer crime is an illegal action in which the perpetrator uses special knowledge of computer
technology. Computer criminals are of four types:
 Employees: The largest category of computer criminals consists of those with the easiest access
to computers-namely, employees. Sometimes the employee is simply trying to steal something
from the employer-equipment, software, electronic funds, proprietary information, or computer
time. Sometimes the employee may be acting out of resentment and is trying to get back at the
company.
 Outside users: Not only employees but also some suppliers or clients may have access to a
company’s computer system. Examples are bank customers who use an automated teller
machine. Like employees, these authorized users may obtain confidential passwords or find
other ways of committing computer crimes.
 Hackers and crackers: Some people think of these two groups as being the same, but they are
not. Hackers are people who gain unauthorized access to a computer system for fun and
challenge of it. Crackers do the same thing but for malicious purposes. They may intend to
steal technical information or to introduce what is called a bomb-a destructive computer
program-into the system.
 Organized criminals: Members of a group have discovered that they can use computers just as
people in legitimate businesses do but for illegal purposes. Counterfeiters and forgers use
microcomputers and printers to produce sophisticated-looking documents such as checks and
drivers’ licenses.

Computer crime
It can take various forms, as follows.
 Damage: Disgruntled employees sometimes attempt to destroy computers, programs, or files.
Hackers and crackers are notorious for creating and distributing malicious programs known as
viruses.
Viruses are programs designed to disrupt the normal functioning of a computer system, they may
propagate through networks and operating systems and attach themselves to different programs and

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 databases. A variant on the virus is the worm. This destructive program fills a computer system
with self-replicating information, clogging the system so that its operations are slowed or stopped.
 Theft: Theft can take many forms of hardware, software, data, computer time. Thieves steal
equipment, of course, but there are also white-collar crimes. They steal data in form of
confidential information. They also use (steal) their company’s computer time to run other
businesses. Unauthorized copying of programs for personal gain is a form of theft called
software piracy.
 Manipulation: This is the taking advantage of or exploiting the public with counterfeit
documents like fake notes of currency, etc. This is the kind of crime committed by the
organized criminals.
NB: Using a computer in the course of performing some other crime, such as selling fraudulent
products, is also illegal.

Other Hazards
There are plenty of other hazards to computer systems and data besides criminals. They include the
following:
 Natural hazards: These include fires, floods, winds, hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes.
Even home computer users should store backup disks of programs and data in safe locations in
case of fire or storm damage.
 Civil strife and terrorism: Wars, riots, and other forms of political unrest are real risks.
 Technological failures: Hardware and software don’t always do what they are supposed to do.
For instance, too little electricity, caused by a blackout or a brownout may cause the loss of
data in primary storage. Too much electricity, as when lightning or other electrical disturbance
affects a power line, may cause a voltage surge, or spike. This excess electricity may destroy
chips or other electronic components of a computer. Microcomputer users should use a surge
protector, a device that a computer connects to from the power source of the wall outlet. When
a voltage surge occurs, it activates a circuit breaker in the surge protector, protecting the
computer system.
Another technological catastrophe is when a hard-disk drive suddenly “crashes” or fails.
 Human errors. Human mistakes are inevitable. Data entry errors are probably the most
common. Programmer errors and may occur frequently.

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Measures to protect computer security
Security is concerned with protecting information, hardware and software. They must be protected
from unauthorized users as well as from damage from intrusions, sabotage, and natural disasters. Some
of the principal measures to protect computer security are the following.
 Encrypting Messages:
Encrypting: The process of scrambling (encrypting) a message in such a way that it is difficult,
expensive, or time-consuming for an unauthorized person to unscramble (decrypt) it. OR it is a process
of transforming plaintext or data into cipher text that cannot be read by anyone other sender and the
receiver.

Whenever information is sent over a network, the possibility of unauthorized access

exists. The longer the distance the message has to travel, the higher the security risk is.
For example, an e-mail message on a LAN meets a limited number of users operating in
controlled environments such as offices. An e-mail message traveling across the country
on the information superhighway affords greater opportunities for the message to be
intercepted.
 Restricting access. Security experts are constantly devising ways to protect computer
systems from access by unauthorized persons. Sometimes security is a matter of putting
guards on company computer rooms and checking the identification of every one
admitted. Often times it is a matter of being careful about assigning passwords to people
and of changing them when these people leave the company. Passwords are secrete
words or numbers that must be keyed into a computer system to gain access. There is
also use of firewalls which is special hardware and software that controls access to an
organization’s computer network. Firewalls act as a security buffer between the
corporation’s private network and all external networks, including the internet. All
electronic communications coming into and leaving the corporation must be evaluated
by the firewall.
 Anticipating disasters. Companies and individuals should be disaster prepared. Physical
security is concerned with protecting hardware from possible human and natural
disasters. Software and data security is concerned with protecting software and data
from unauthorized tampering or damage. Some organizations have a disaster recovery

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 plan describing ways to continue operating until normal computer operations can be
restored.
Hardware can be kept /locked in doors. Equipment’s like lightening conductors and fire
fighters/detectors should be in place.
 Backing up data. Equipment can always be replaced. But a company’s data may be
irreplaceable. The safest procedure is to make frequent backups of data and to store them in
remote locations.

Security for microcomputers

Procedures for keeping a microcomputer safe are:
 Avoid extreme conditions. Don’t expose the computer to extreme conditions. Direct sun,
rain, extreme temperatures, smoke, and spilled drinks and foods are all harmful to
microcomputers. Clean your computer regularly.
 Use a surge protector to protect against voltage surges.
 Guard the computer. Put a cable lock on the computer. Do not leave passwords accessible
to other people.
 Guard programs and data. Store disks properly, preferably in a locked container. Make
backup copies of all your important files and programs. Store copies of your files in a
different and safe location from the site of your computer.

Legal issues: these refers to issues related to, or concerned with law, issues such as

a. Authorized by or based on law: a legal right.

b. Established by law; statutory: the legal owner (copy right)

Legal issues relating to the use of computers

(a)Computer Misuse Act 1990
Computer misuse offence

1.(1) A person is guilty of an offence if, he causes a computer to perform any function with intent to
secure/lock access to any program or data held in any computer, the access he intends to secure is
unauthorized and he knows at the time when he causes the computer to perform that function.

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(2) A person guilty of an offence under this section shall be liable on summary conviction to
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to a fine not exceeding level 5 on the standard
scale or to both.

2. (1) A person is guilty of an offence under this section if he commits an offence under section 1:
above ("the unauthorized access offence") with intent to commit an offence to which this section
applies; or and to facilitate the commission of such an offence (whether by himself or by any other
person); and the offence he intends to commit or facilitate is referred to further offence.

(b)The Data Protection Acts

The concept of data protection exists mainly to protect an individual's personal data held by a third
party, and governs how that data can be stored and accessed. A typical example is credit information
used by banks and retailers to check an individual's credit-worthiness.

It's important to note that what is being protected is not the data itself, but the subject of the data; the
individual. The data protection act gives the individual the right to access their data, no matter where it
is stored.

The original Data Protection Act of 1986 was designed to protect personal data stored by companies
and organizations from being misused.

The 1998 Data Protection Act strengthened this to conform to the European Data Directive.

The Freedom of Information Act 2000 also extends the rights of citizens to gain access to the operation
and decision-making processes of all public bodies, including universities.

This is all about one’s rights to access his/her data

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