3 Atomic structure
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist by itself and still have the same chemical
properties as the element.
Subatomic particles
Atoms are made up of three different types of fundamental particles called subatomic particles:
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
Protons and neutrons are in a fixed position in the centre, or nucleus, of an atom. The electrons are
found quite a distance from the nucleus, spinning around the nucleus in energy shells (see p. 19).
Table 3.1 Characteristics of the three subatomic particles
Particle Relative charge Relative mass
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron −1 1
1840
In any atom, the number of protons and number of electrons is the same, therefore atoms have no
overall charge. Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons and electrons – this
is what makes the elements different. Two numbers can be assigned to any atom, the atomic number
and the mass number.
Atomic number
Atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of one atom of an element.
Since the number of electrons in an atom is always equal to the number of protons, the number of
electrons in an atom is equal to the atomic number. Each element has its own unique atomic number.
Mass number
Mass number (or nucleon number) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of one
atom of an element.
The number of neutrons in an atom can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number from the mass
number. More than one element can have the same mass number, so the number is not unique to a
particular element.
Nuclear notation
An atom (or ion) of an element can be represented using the nuclear notation given below:
A
Z X
where: X = atomic symbol
A = mass number
Z = atomic number
Using the nuclear notation, the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom can
be calculated.
18 3 Concise Revision Course: CSEC® Chemistry
Example
The nuclear notation for copper is 6329 Cu. From this, the following can be deduced about a
copper atom:
Mass number = 63
Atomic number = 29
Number of protons = 29
Number of neutrons = 63 − 29 = 34
Number of electrons = 29
The nuclear notations for all elements can be found in the periodic table of elements on p. 196.
The arrangement of subatomic particles in an atom
Atoms are composed of two parts:
• A nucleus in the centre containing nucleons (protons and neutrons) packed tightly together. Nearly
all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
• One or more energy shells surrounding the nucleus which contain electrons revolving at high
speeds. The shells are relatively distant from the nucleus, such that most of an atom is empty space.
The electrons moving around the nucleus make up the volume of an atom.
Each energy shell is a specific distance from the nucleus.
Electrons with the least energy occupy the energy shells closest to the nucleus.
Electrons fill up the energy shells closest to the nucleus first.
Each energy shell has a maximum number of electrons it can hold:
– The first energy shell can hold up to two electrons.
– The second energy shell can hold up to eight electrons.
– The third energy shell may be considered to hold up to eight electrons.
Further energy shells can hold more electrons, but it is unnecessary to know their maximum
numbers at this level of study.
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is known as its electronic configuration. This can be
represented in writing using numbers or by drawing a shell diagram.
Representing atoms
To draw a shell diagram of an atom, you first determine the number of protons, neutrons and
electrons, and then write its electronic configuration using numbers separated by commas.
Examples
The helium atom, 42He
A helium atom has:
2 protons 2p
2 neutrons (4 – 2) 2n
2 electrons
The electronic configuration is 2
∴ it has 2 electrons in the first shell
3 Atomic structure 19
The boron atom, 115B
A boron atom has:
5 protons
6 neutrons (11 – 5) 5p
6n
5 electrons
The electronic configuration is 2,3
∴ it has: 2 electrons in the first shell
3 electrons in the second shell
The sulfur atom, 1632 S
A sulfur atom has:
16 protons
16 neutrons (32 – 16)
16 p
16 electrons 16 n
The electronic configuration is 2,8,6
∴ it has: 2 electrons in the first shell
8 electrons in the second shell
6 electrons in the third shell
Note Electrons are only shown as being paired in the second and third shells when the shells contain
five or more electrons.
The number and arrangement of electrons in an element determine its chemical properties, especially
the number of electrons in the outermost energy shell which are known as the valence electrons.
Isotopes
Isotopes are different atoms of a single element that have the same number of protons in their nuclei,
but different numbers of neutrons.
Therefore, isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
• Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties because the number and arrangement of
electrons in them are the same.
• Isotopes of an element have slightly different physical properties because they have different
numbers of neutrons which give them slightly different masses.
Isotopy is the occurrence of atoms of a single element that have the same number of protons in their
nuclei, but different numbers of neutrons.
Examples
Chlorine
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes: 3517Cl and 3717Cl.
Table 3.2 The isotopes of chlorine
Isotope Percentage of Mass Atomic Number of
isotope number number Protons Electrons Neutrons
35Cl
17 75% 35 17 17 17 18
37Cl 25% 37 17 17 17 20
17
20 3 Concise Revision Course: CSEC® Chemistry
[ ][
75 × 35 + 25 × 37
Average mass number of naturally occurring chlorine = 100 100 ]
= 35.5
Carbon
Carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: 126C, 136C and 146C.
Table 3.3 The isotopes of carbon
Isotope Percentage of Mass Atomic Number of
isotope number number Protons Electrons Neutrons
12C
6 98.89% 12 6 6 6 6
13C
6 1.10% 13 6 6 6 7
14C
6 0.01% 14 6 6 6 8
Carbon-14 is radioactive.
Radioactive isotopes
The nuclei of some isotopes are unstable and spontaneously undergo radioactive decay, during which
they eject small particles and radiation. These are called radioactive isotopes and they eject these
particles to become more stable. They may produce atoms of one or more different elements at
the same time. The time taken for half of the nuclei in a sample of a radioactive isotope to undergo
radioactive decay is called its half-life.
Uses of radioactive isotopes
• Carbon-14 dating
The age of plant and animal remains, up to about 60 000 years old, can be determined by
carbon-14 dating. Living organisms constantly take in carbon from carbon dioxide or food
molecules, 0.01% of which is radioactive carbon-14. This keeps the percentage of carbon-14 in
living organisms constant. When an organism dies, it stops taking in carbon and the percentage of
carbon-14 in its body decreases as it undergoes radioactive decay. As the half-life of carbon-14 is
5700 years, if the percentage of radioactive carbon-14 left in plant and animal remains is measured,
it can be used to determine their ages.
• Cancer treatment (radiotherapy)
Cancerous cells in tumours can be destroyed by directing a controlled beam of radiation from
radioactive cobalt-60 at the cells. Alternatively, a radioactive isotope can be injected directly into
the cancerous tumour, e.g. radioactive iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid cancer.
• Energy generation
Electricity is generated in nuclear power stations using radioactive uranium-235. If a
uranium-235 atom is struck by a fast moving neutron, it splits into two smaller atoms. As it splits,
two or three neutrons and a large amount of heat energy are released. The neutrons can then
strike other atoms causing them to split and release more neutrons and energy. This causes a
chain reaction which releases very large amounts of heat energy.
If the chain reaction is controlled, the energy can be used to generate electricity. If the chain
reaction is not controlled, a nuclear explosion (for example, from an atom bomb) can occur.
3 Atomic structure 21
Ba
235U energy
Kr
Ba
Ba
235U energy 235U energy
1
neutron
Kr
Kr
3
neutrons Ba
235U energy
Kr
9
neutrons
Figure 3.1 The chain reaction created by splitting a uranium-235 atom
• Tracers
Very tiny quantities of radioactive isotopes can be observed and traced using special equipment
in medical investigations and biological research. For example, the functioning of the thyroid gland
can be checked by giving patients radioactive iodine-131 and radioactive carbon-14 is used to study
carbon dioxide uptake and photosynthesis in plants.
• Heart pacemakers
Heart pacemakers are usually powered by chemical batteries which have to be replaced by a
surgical procedure about every 10 years. Batteries containing plutonium-238 should be able to
power pacemakers for a patient’s lifetime without having to be replaced, since the half-life of
plutonium-238 is about 87 years.
The mass of atoms
Because an atom of any element is so small, its absolute mass (actual mass) is very difficult to measure,
e.g. the absolute mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67 × 10−24 g. Consequently, the masses of atoms are
usually compared using relative atomic mass.
Relative atomic mass (Ar ) is the average mass of one atom of an element compared to one-twelfth the
mass of an atom of carbon-12.
A carbon-12 atom has been assigned a mass of 12.00 atomic mass units or amu. This means that 1/12th
the mass of a carbon-12 atom has a mass of 1.00 amu, and relative atomic mass compares the masses
of atoms to this value. Being a comparative value, relative atomic mass has no units.
When the relative atomic mass of an element is calculated, the relative abundance of each isotope is
taken into account. As a result, relative atomic masses of elements are not usually whole numbers,
e.g. the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 (see p. 20).
22 3 Concise Revision Course: CSEC® Chemistry
Revision questions
1 What is an atom?
2 Atoms are composed of THREE subatomic particles. Name these and use their
relative masses and charges to distinguish between them.
3 Define the following terms:
a atomic number
b mass number
4 Draw a shell diagram to show the structure of EACH of the following atoms and
identify the atom in EACH case:
a 126C
b 3919K
c 3517Cl
d 94Be
5 What does the term ‘isotopy’ mean?
6 Naturally occurring boron consists of 20% 105B and 80% 115B.
a What can you deduce about naturally occurring boron?
b Determine the average mass number of naturally occurring boron.
7 What is a radioactive isotope?
8 Outline how radioactive isotopes are used to:
a generate energy in nuclear power stations
b determine the age of a fossil
c treat cancer
9 What is relative atomic mass and why is it used to determine the mass of atoms?
3 Atomic structure 23