Chapter 7:

Applications of
Thermodynamics to Flow
Processes
 Equations of Balance
Balance Equations for Steady- Balance Equations for Single-
General Equations of Balance
Flow Processes Stream Steady-Flow Processes

𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
+ ∆ 𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑠 =0 ∆ 𝑚ሶ 𝑓𝑠 =0 𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2 = 𝑚ሶ
𝑑𝑡 (7.1) (7.2)
(2.25)

𝑑 𝑚𝑈 𝐶𝑉 1 2 1 2
+∆ 𝐻 + 𝑢 + 𝑧𝑔 𝑚ሶ ∆ 𝐻 + 𝑢 + 𝑧𝑔 𝑚ሶ ∆𝑢 2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑓𝑠
2 𝑓𝑠 ∆𝐻 + + 𝑔∆𝑧 = 𝑄 + 𝑊𝑠
2
= 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ = 𝑄ሶ + 𝑊ሶ (2.31a)
(2.27) (2.29)

𝑑 𝑚𝑆 𝐶𝑉 𝑄ሶ 𝑗 𝑄ሶ 𝑗 𝑄𝑗
ሶ
+ ∆ 𝑆𝑚 −෍ = 𝑆𝐺ሶ ≥ 0 ሶ
∆ 𝑆𝑚 −෍ = 𝑆𝐺ሶ ≥ 0 ∆𝑆 − ෍ = 𝑆𝐺 ≥ 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑓𝑠 𝑇𝜎,𝑗 𝑓𝑠 𝑇𝜎,𝑗 𝑇𝜎,𝑗
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
(5.16) (5.17) (5.18)
 Applications of thermodynamics to flow processes
• Thermodynamics vs. Fluid mechanics
• Flow is caused by pressure gradients within a fluid. This contrasts with
the uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in closed systems
• An equation of state applies locally and instantaneously at any point in a
fluid system
• In this chapter
• Develop the thermodynamic equations applicable to one-dimensional steady-
state flow of compressible fluids in conduits
• Apply these equations to flow (both subsonic and supersonic) in pipes and nozzles
• Treat throttling processes, i.e., flow through restrictions
• Calculate the work produced by turbines and expanders
• Examine compression processes as produced by compressors, pumps, blowers,
fans, and vacuum pumps
 7.1: Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• Although momentum balances (equations of fluid dynamics) are typically applied to
pipe flow, thermodynamics provides equations relating pressure, velocity, cross-
sectional area, enthalpy, entropy, and specific volume of a flowing stream
• Problems in compressible flow that do not require momentum balances are within
the scope of thermodynamics
• For adiabatic, steady-state, one-dimensional compressible flow with no shaft work or
changes in potential energy:
∆𝑢2
∆𝐻 + =0
2
In differential form: 𝑑𝐻 = −𝑢𝑑𝑢 (7.3)
• The continuity equation is also applicable:
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝐴
𝑑 𝑢𝐴Τ𝑉 = 0 or − − =0 (7.4)
𝑉 𝑢 𝐴
 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• The appropriate fundamental property relation:
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 (6.9)
• Defining the specific volume as a function of S &P :
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑆 + 𝑑𝑃
𝜕𝑆 𝑃
𝜕𝑃 𝑆
• A more convenient form by mathematical identity:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑇
=
𝜕𝑆 𝑃
𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝜕𝑆 𝑃
• Substituting in Eqns. (3.3) and (6.18) yields:
𝜕𝑉 𝛽𝑉𝑇
=
𝜕𝑆 𝑃
𝐶𝑃
 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• From physics, the speed of sound, c, in a fluid is given by:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑉 𝑉2
𝑐 2 = −𝑉 2 → =− 2
𝜕𝑉 𝑆
𝜕𝑃 𝑆
𝑐
• Substituting into the equation for dV :
𝑑𝑉 𝛽𝑇 𝑉
= 𝑑𝑆 − 2 𝑑𝑃 (7.5)
𝑉 𝐶𝑃 𝑐
• Combining Eqns. (6.9), (7.3), (7.4), and (7.5):
2 2
𝛽𝑢 𝑢
1 − 𝐌2 𝑉𝑑𝑃 + 1 + 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑑𝐴 = 0 (7.7)
𝐶𝑃 𝐴
• Where 𝐌 is the Mach number, defined as the ratio of the speed of the fluid in the
duct to the speed of sound: 𝐌 ≡ u/c
 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids
• Relating Eqns. (6.9), (7.3) and (7.7) to eliminate VdP :
𝛽𝑢2
+ 𝐌2 1 𝑢2
𝐶𝑃
𝑢𝑑𝑢 − 2
𝑇𝑑𝑆 + 2
𝑑𝐴 = 0 (7.8)
1−𝐌 1−𝐌 𝐴
• Together with Eqn. (7.3), this relates du, dS, dH, dA and dV
• If the preceding equations represent changes along a length dx, then dividing (7.7)
and (7.8) by dx creates:
𝑑𝑃 𝛽𝑢2 𝑑𝑆 𝑢2 𝑑𝐴
𝑉 1 − 𝐌2 +𝑇 1+ − =0 (7.9)
𝑑𝑥 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝛽𝑢2 2
𝑑𝑢 + 𝐌 𝑑𝑆 1 𝑢2 𝑑𝐴
𝐶𝑃
𝑢 −𝑇 2
+ 2
=0 (7.10)
𝑑𝑥 1−𝐌 𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝐌 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
• The 2nd Law, applied to adiabatic flow, implies 𝑑𝑆Τ𝑑𝑥 ≥ 0
 Pipe Flow
• For constant cross-sectional area, dA/dx = 0, these become:
𝛽𝑢2
𝑑𝑃 𝑇 1 + 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑆
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑉 1 − 𝐌 2 𝑑𝑥
𝛽𝑢2 2
𝑑𝑢 + 𝐌 𝑑𝑆
𝐶𝑃
𝑢 =𝑇
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝐌2 𝑑𝑥
• For subsonic flow, 𝐌2 < 1, and all terms on the right-hand side of each equation are
positive, hence:
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑢
< 0 and >0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Nozzles
• Well-designed nozzles have areas that change in a way that makes the flow nearly
frictionless. In the limit of reversible flow, dS/dx = 0,
𝑑𝑃 𝑢2 1 𝑑𝐴
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑉𝐴 1 − 𝐌2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 1 𝑑𝐴
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 1 − 𝐌2 𝑑𝑥
• Characteristics of nozzle flow for 𝐌 < 1 or 𝐌 > 1:
Subsonic: 𝐌 < 1 Supersonic: 𝐌 > 1

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA/dx - + - +
dP/dx - + + -
du/dx + - - +
 Nozzles
Subsonic: M < 1 Supersonic: M > 1

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA/dx - + - +

dP/dx - + + -

du/dx + - - +

• Thus, in typical industrial applications, for subsonic flow:

• Velocity increases and pressure decreases in converging flow
• Converging flow can deliver a constant flow rate into regions of variable P
• For converging/diverging nozzles, the velocity can increase from subsonic to
supersonic locally, creating a shockwave downstream of the nozzle
 Converging/Diverging Nozzles
• Assume the cross-sectional area before and after the nozzle are the same
• Define the inlet pressure as P1 and the discharge pressure as P2
• The relationship between velocity and pressure in an isentropic nozzle can be
expressed analytically for the ideal-gas state and constant heat capacities
 Converging/Diverging Nozzles
• Combining Eqns. (6.9) and (7.3) for isentropic flow gives:
𝑢𝑑𝑢 = −𝑉𝑑𝑃
• Integration, defining nozzle entrance and exit as 1 and 2:
𝑃2 𝛾−1 Τ𝛾
2𝛾𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2
𝑢22 − 𝑢12 = −2 න 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 1− (7.11)
𝑃1 𝛾−1 𝑃1
• Eqn. (7.11) can be solved for the pressure ratio for which u2 reaches the speed of
sound, i.e., where:
𝜕𝑃
𝑢22 2
= 𝑐 = −𝑉 2
𝜕𝑉 𝑆
 Converging/Diverging Nozzles
𝜕𝑃
𝑢22 2
= 𝑐 = −𝑉 2
𝜕𝑉 𝑆
• Taking a derivative of Eqn. (3.23c) with respect to V :
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = const. (3.23𝑎)
𝜕𝑃 𝛾𝑃
=−
𝜕𝑉 𝑆
𝑉
• Substitution into the top equation: 2𝛾𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2
𝛾−1 Τ𝛾

𝑢22 = 𝛾𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑢22 − 𝑢12 = 1−

𝛾−1 𝑃1

• Substitution into Eqn. (7.11) and with u1 = 0, 𝑃2 Τ𝑃1 becomes:

𝛾 Τ 𝛾−1
𝑃2 2
= (7.12)
𝑃1 𝛾+1
 Throttling Processes
• Throttling process: when a fluid flows through a restriction, such as an orifice, a partly
closed valve or a porous plug, without any appreciable change in kinetic or potential
energy
• Primary result: pressure drop in the fluid
• Produces no shaft work, and in the absence of heat transfer:
∆𝐻 = 0 or 𝐻2 = 𝐻1
• The process is therefore isenthalpic, or occurring at constant enthalpy
• In the ideal-gas state there is no change in temperature
• For a real-gas, typically temperature decreases, but not always
 Throttling Process Calculations
• For processes involving superheated steam, use the superheated steam tables
(Appendix E)
• Assuming the inlet (1) and outlet (2) pressures are known, as well as the inlet
temperature:
• Look up H1, which will be equal to H2 for a throttling process
• At P2, skim through the temperatures until you find an enthalpy value close to H1
• Interpolate between the appropriate table entries to determine the actual final temperature, T2
for which H = H1 at P = P2
• If the exit state is in VLE (H1 is between Hl and Hv at P2), interpolate between saturated liquid and
vapor conditions to determine the exhaust quality (vapor fraction)
 Throttling Process Calculations
• For superheated vapors for which tabulated data are unavailable, an iterative process
is required, starting with :
𝑖𝑔
∆𝐻 = −𝐻1𝑅 + 𝐶𝑃 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 + 𝐻2𝑅 = 0
𝐻

• Assuming the inlet (1) and outlet (2) pressures and inlet temperature are known:
1) Evaluate 𝐻1𝑅 using the appropriate correlations in Chapter 6
𝑖𝑔
2) Initially assume 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 to determine an initial value of 𝐶𝑃
𝐻
3) Given this initial guess for 𝑇2 , determine 𝐻2𝑅
𝑖𝑔
4) Solve for 𝑇2 using the equation below, re-evaluate 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐻2𝑅 and iterate
𝐻
𝐻1𝑅 − 𝐻2𝑅
𝑇2 = + 𝑇1
𝑖𝑔
𝐶𝑃
𝐻
 7.2: Turbines (Expanders)
• Turbines/Expanders: expansion of a gas in a nozzle to produce a high-velocity stream
where internal energy is converted to kinetic energy which is then converted into
shaft work when the stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating shaft
• These typically consist of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating blades through which
vapor or gas flows in a steady-state expansion process
• Overall: conversion of internal energy of a high-pressure stream into shaft work
• Specifically, when steam is used, the device is called a turbine; when some other high-
pressure gas is used, it is often called an expander
 Steady-State Flow Through a Turbine/Expander
• In a properly designed turbine, heat transfer and potential and kinetic energy changes
are negligible
• The resulting energy balances are then:
𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑚∆𝐻
ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 7.13
𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐻 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 (7.14)
 Ideal Turbine Operation
• Usually, the inlet conditions (T1 and P1) and the discharge pressure (P2) are known or
specified
• An ideal turbine would operate reversibly and adiabatically, making the process
isentropic: ∆S = 0, or 𝑆2 = 𝑆1 , fixing the final state
• A reversible adiabatic turbine produces the maximum amount of work possible for
the specified conditions
𝑊𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 = ∆𝐻 𝑆 (7.15)

• (∆H)s represents ∆H for an isentropic process

• Actual turbines produce less work because of irreversibilities, requiring the
introduction of turbine efficiency:
𝑊𝑠
𝜂≡
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐)
 Expansion in a Turbine/Expander
∆𝐻
𝜂= (7.16)
∆𝐻 𝑠
• Ideal process between 2 isobars with ∆S = 0
produces the largest ∆H
• In a real, irreversible process, ∆S > 0, yielding
a smaller ∆H
• Typically, 𝜂 ~ 0.7 − 0.8
 Turbine/Expander Calculations
• For processes involving superheated steam, use the superheated steam tables
(Appendix E)
• Assuming P1, P2, and T1 are known:
• Look up H1 & S1 and assuming ∆S = 0, define the latter as equal to 𝑆2′
• At P2, skim through the temperatures until you find an entropy value close to S1
= 𝑆2′
• Interpolate between the appropriate columns to determine the actual final
temperature, T2
• If the exit state is in VLE, interpolate between saturated liquid and vapor
conditions to determine the exhaust quality (vapor fraction)
• For the final state, interpolate for (or use the vapor fraction) to determine 𝐻2′
• The difference between 𝐻2′ and H1 is the isentropic work:
𝐻2′ − 𝐻1 = (∆𝐻)𝑠 = 𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐)
 Turbine/Expander Calculations
• For processes involving superheated steam, use the superheated steam tables
(Appendix E)
• Continuing from before:
• If the efficiency, 𝜂, is known, determine the real work:
𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐻 = 𝜂 ∆𝐻 𝑠
• If the real final state is needed, then determine the real H2 :
𝐻2 = 𝐻1 + ∆𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝑊𝑠
• Skim steam stables to find calculated value of H2 at pressure P2
• Interpolate for the appropriate final temperature/vapor fraction
• If real ∆S is desired, interpolate for real S2 and find real ∆S
 Turbine/Expander Calculations
• For superheated vapors for which tabular property data is not available, an iteration
process is required, starting with the assumption of isentropic behavior, i.e.:
𝑖𝑔 𝑇2 𝑃2
∆𝑆 = −𝑆1 + 𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝑅 ln + 𝑆2𝑅 = 0
𝑅
(6.75)
𝑆 𝑇1 𝑃1
• Assuming P1, P2, and T1 are known:
1) Evaluate 𝑆1𝑅 using the appropriate correlations in Chapter 6
2) For expanders, T2 is typically < T1, so assume some decrease to determine an
𝑖𝑔
initial value of 𝐶𝑃
𝑆
3) Given the initial guess for 𝑇2 , determine 𝑆2𝑅
 Turbine/Expander Calculations
• Continuing from previous page:
4) Solve for 𝑇2 using the equation below :
𝑃2
𝑆1𝑅 − 𝑆2𝑅 + 𝑅 ln
𝑃1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 exp
𝑖𝑔
𝐶𝑃
𝑆
𝑖𝑔
5) Using this new T2, re-evaluate 𝐶𝑃 and 𝑆2𝑅 and iterate for T2
𝑆
6) Since this corresponds to an ideal case, this is actually 𝑇2′
7) Determine (∆H)S from a variation of Eqn. (6.74):
𝑖𝑔
∆𝐻 𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇2′ − 𝑇1 + 𝐻2𝑅 − 𝐻1𝑅
𝐻
8) Given the turbine efficiency, then: 𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐻 = 𝜂 ∆𝐻 𝑠
 Turbine/Expander Calculations
• Continuing from before:
9) If the real final temperature is desired, iterate through Eqn. (6.74):
𝑖𝑔
𝑊𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 + 𝐻2𝑅 − 𝐻1𝑅
𝐻
𝑖𝑔
10) Using the previously determined 𝑇2′ , 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐻2𝑅 (from steps 6 & 7), solve for
𝐻
T2 using the following equation:
𝑊𝑆 + 𝐻1𝑅 − 𝐻2𝑅
𝑇2 = + 𝑇1
𝑖𝑔
𝐶𝑃
𝐻
𝑖𝑔
11) Using this new T2, re-evaluate 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐻2𝑅 and iterate for T
𝐻
12) The final state, T2, is finally known!
 7.3: Compression Processes
• Compression processes bring about pressure increases
• Compressors, pumps, fans, flowers, and vacuum pumps are all devices designed for
this purpose – all vital for fluid transport
• Compression of gases to moderate pressures is typically brought about by rotating
blades (rotary equipment)
• Compression of gases to high pressures requires reciprocating pistons
• Pumps (not compressors) are used for liquids
 Steady-State Flow Through a Compressor
• The energy equations for compressing gases are identical to those for turbines and
expanders:
𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 𝑚∆𝐻
ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 7.13
𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐻 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 (7.14)
 Ideal Compressor Operation
• Usually, the inlet conditions (T1 and P1) and the discharge pressure (P2) are
fixed/known
• Ideally, like turbines, compressors operate reversibly and adiabatically, thus
isentropically: ∆S = 0, or 𝑆2 = 𝑆1 , fixing the final state
• The isentropic (adiabatic and reversible) compressor requires the minimum amount of
work for compression of the gas
𝑊𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 = ∆𝐻 𝑆 (7.15)
• Actual compressors require more work because of irreversibilities, requiring the
introduction of compressor efficiency:
𝑊𝑠 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐)
𝜂≡
𝑊𝑠
 Adiabatic Compression Process

∆𝐻 𝑠
𝜂= (7.17)
∆𝐻
• Ideal process between 2 isobars with
∆S = 0, produces the lowest ∆H
• In a real, irreversible process, ∆S > 0,
yielding a larger ∆H
• Typically, 𝜂 ~ 0.7 − 0.8
 Compressor Calculations
• Because expanders and compressors operate similarly, the calculation process is
almost identical, except pressure increases produce temperature increases
• Using steam tables, follow the procedures used for turbines (and expect a
temperature increase this time)
• When tabulated properties are unavailable, follow the same procedures as
expanders, with two exceptions:
𝑇2
• Because T2 > T1, initially guess something like = 1.01
𝑇1
• Once ∆𝐻 𝑠 is known, use the compressor efficiency to determine the real work:
𝑊𝑠 = ∆𝐻 = ∆𝐻 𝑠 /𝜂
 Pumps
• Pumps, typically rotating equipment, are used to increase the pressure of liquids
• Determination of the shaft work derives from the fundamental property relation in
Eqn. (6.9) for an isentropic process:
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑆)
• Combining with Eqn. (7.15):
𝑃2
𝑊𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 = ∆𝐻 𝑆 = න 𝑉𝑑𝑃
𝑃1

• Far from the critical point where liquid volume can be assumed independent of P (i.e.
for an incompressible fluid):
𝑊𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 = 𝑉 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 (7.24)
• As with compressors, 𝜂 = ∆𝐻 𝑠 Τ∆𝐻 (7.17)
 Pumps
• When liquid cannot be considered incompressible, use equations for liquids from
Chapter 6:
𝑑𝐻 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 + 1 − 𝛽𝑇 𝑉𝑑𝑃 (6.27)
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃 − 𝛽𝑉𝑑𝑃 (6.28)
𝑇
• Because temperature changes in the pumped fluid are very small and because V and
𝛽 are insensitive to pressure (far from the critical point), the above equations are
typically directly integrated:
∆𝐻 = 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇 + 1 − 𝛽𝑇 𝑉∆𝑃 (7.25)
𝑇2
∆𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝛽𝑉∆𝑃 (7.26)
𝑇1

𝜕𝑉 𝐶𝑃 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝐻 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉 − 𝑇 𝑑𝑃 (6.21) 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑𝑃 (6.22)
𝜕𝑇 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝑃