Module 1

DNA and Protein

synthesis

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 DNA: THE CODE OF LIFE

INTRODUCTION

DNA is an important part of our make-up. The hereditary instruction carried within the DNA
ensures that offspring resemble their parents and ensures that genetic variation can take place,
resulting in survival of the fittest. The scientific field is doing on-going research on DNA and it has
brought about a lot of new knowledge. Some examples of this are: the human genome project, DNA
profiling, cloning, identifying the genes that are responsible for certain illnesses and isolating genes
to correct mistakes in our genetic make-up. This topic is an important building block for the
understanding of genetics and inheritance as well as evolution. It is important that learners
understand this section well so that they could link it with the other topics that will be dealt with in
the rest of the year.

OVERVIEW

This module deals with DNA and protein synthesis. The module starts with notes and important
“tips” for learners. There is a detailed terminology list, followed by notes and hand-on activities.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of this session, participants will be able to:

 Teach the terminology associated with DNA and protein synthesis

 Create a crossword puzzle online
 Describe the structure of DNA and RNA structures
 Perform a DNA extraction
 Differentiate between DNA and RNA
 Describe DNA replication
 Differentiate between translation and transcription and explain the two processes
 Discuss DNA profiling and its applications
 Administer the Grade 12 Term 1 SBA task

CONTENT

You will study this module through the following units:

Unit 1: How do we teach terminology?

Unit 2: What types of nucleic acids are there and what are their applications?
Unit 3: How do transcription and translation fit into protein synthesis?

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 UNIT 1 - How do we teach terminology?

DEFINITIONS AND IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS:

STRATEGIES TO TEACH TERMINOLOGY

1. In every lesson identify new terms/concepts and write it on the board.
2. Learners will take down terms/concepts at the back of their notebooks noting the correct
spelling.
3. Learners must define/write down the meaning of these words from listening to the
educators lesson/finding meaning from the dictionary or textbook.
4. Break down the concept/term where possible- give the meaning of the prefix and suffix e.g.
photo(light) synthesis (to build up).
5. Use the concept in a sentence.
6. Educator checks that learners have done the above, on a daily basis e.g. ask any learner to
define a concept.
7. By the end of the year ALL learners have a comprehensive GLOSSARY of ALL terms
/concepts.
8. ASSESSMENT: Biological terms to be included in all daily assessment tasks. Develop
crossword puzzles. (Use various websites from internet e.g. eclipse)
9. Learning terminology also helps in answering MCQs and matching questions, etc.

Term Meaning/Definition

Base pairing Adenine (A) always bonds to thymine (T) and guanine (G) with cytosine
(C) in DNA molecule, to ensure the precision of DNA replication

Chromatin Tangled network of chromosomes located within the nucleus

Chromatid The individual threads that form a chromosome

Centromere Structure joining two threads of a chromosome

Chromosome A structure made up of two chromatids joined by a centromere that

carries the hereditary characteristics within the DNA
Chromatin network Visible as thread-like structures in the nucleus of an inactive cell

Nucleolus Structure in the nucleus responsible for forming ribosomal RNA

Nucleoplasm That part of the protoplasm within the nucleus

Cytoplasm That part of the protoplasm outside the nucleus.

Ribosome Structure that is the site of protein synthesis

Gene Segment of a chromosome that controls each characteristic/ a unit of

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 sequenced pieces of DNA that carry the genetic information that will
determine the hereditary characteristics of an organism.

Hereditary Characteristics that are passed from parents to offspring

DNA Nucleic acid that is a constituent of chromosomes

Helix Natural shape of a DNA molecule

RNA Type of nucleic acid that occurs as a single strand / nucleic acid that
contains uracil

Nucleotide Building blocks of nucleic acids consisting of a sugar, a base and a

phosphate

Replication The formation of an exact copy of the DNA in a cell

Template The original strand upon which a new strand is developed

Complementary The new strand that is made based on the sequence of nucleotides on
strand the template

Cytosine The base that pairs off with guanine

Thymine The base that pairs off with adenine

Uracil The base found in RNA and not DNA

Hydrogen bonds The chemical bonds which link base pairs in the DNA molecule

DNA: (Deoxyribonucleic acid) forms the chromosomes in the nuclei of all living
cells and carries the hereditary information of the organism. The DNA
molecule is a double helix (twisted) strand.

DNA Replication Process involving the formation of two new identical DNA molecules
from an original DNA.

Enzyme A protein that speeds up a chemical reaction / a catalyst

Codon The three adjacent bases found on a DNA or m-RNA molecule

Anticodon The three adjacent bases found on a t-RNA molecule that will determine
which amino acid will be brought to the ribosome

Transcription The synthesis of m-RNA from a DNA template

Translation The process of converting the information carried by m-RNA to the

correct sequence of amino acids to form a particular protein

RNA (Ribose nucleic acid) a single strand, located in the nucleoplasm and
cytoplasm. The RNA molecule is always a single strand of nucleotides.
Remember that the RNA contains Uracil instead of Thymine (A, G, C and

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 U). RNA is responsible for protein synthesis.
Synthesis Building up of separate parts into a whole

Amino acid The basic building block of a protein molecule

Peptide link A link between two adjacent amino acids

Monomer A single unit that makes up a larger molecule

Polymer A large molecule which is formed from many small molecules

(monomers)

Mutation A sudden and relatively permanent gene / chromosomal change

Mitochondrial DNA The type of DNA found only in the mitochondrion

Messenger RNA Responsible for carrying the genetic code that is transcribed from DNA,
(mRNA): to specialized sites of the ribosomes where the information is translated
for protein synthesis
Nitrogenous bases: This is a nitrogen containing molecules viz. Adenine, (A); Thymine (T);
Guanine (G); Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U).
Nucleotide: The building block (monomers) of RNA and DNA. Each nucleotide
consists of a pentose sugar, a phosphate ion and a nitrogenous base.
Ribosomal RNA Form the ribosomes and produce the proteins, based on the information
(rRNA) received from the tRNA

Transfer RNA (tRNA) Has anticodons, which codes for a specific amino acid. The anticodons are
complementary to the mRNA codon, during the production of proteins.
Genome All the genes present in an organism

ACTIVITY 1.1

AIM- To enable participants to create crossword puzzles on the internet in order to enforce
terminology activities in class.

Background: Learners struggle with the terminology and teachers need to come up with fun ways to
use terminology in class.

METHOD: The trainer will illustrate how to create your own crossword puzzle.

- Connect to the internet on you device

- Go to Google and enter crossword puzzle maker

- Choose the option:

- Make your own printable crossword puzzles/A to Z teacher stuff tools

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- Follow the instructions on the page

Reflection: There are many websites that could be used to create crossword puzzles.

[Link]

[Link]

UNIT 2 - What types of nucleic acids are there and what are their applications?

1. DNA and where it is found

In the nucleus of almost every cell in your body is the collection of DNA needed to make you.
DNA in the nucleus is grouped into 23 sets of chromosomes that are called your genome.
DNA is grouped into groups called genes within each chromosome. Your genome contains
about 35000 genes.
Some interesting facts regarding chromosomes:

 Chromosome 1 is the largest chromosome with roughly 250 million nucleotide base pairs,
and 4316 genes have been identified on this chromosome. If we could stretch out this
chromosome it would be 8.5 cm. 890 diseases are linked to this chromosome (Alzheimer's
type 4, breast cancer etc.)

 Chromosome 21 is the smallest with roughly 48 million nucleotide base pairs, with between
477-635 genes. Diseases related to genes on chromosome 21 are Alzheimer, lateral
sclerosis, Down syndrome, certain types of deafness and 8 other identified syndromes.

Following is a diagram illustrating where DNA is found in a cell:

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 ACTIVITY 1.2

AIM- To enable participants to extract DNA from a given fruit.

BACKGROUND: Teachers need to do the practicals provided in their resource cd’s.

METHOD: Participants should be divided in groups of 5 members. Each group should collect

the materials listed below and follow the method stated.

Materials

* Strawberries
* Zip-closure sandwich bags
* DNA extracting solution (mix about 1 cup of dish washing liquid detergent
and 1/4 cup salt into 4.5 litres of water)
* Plastic cups
* Gauze or cheesecloth
* Rubber bands
* Test tubes
* Droppers
* Ice cold ethanol (place test tube of ethanol in a beaker containing ice cubes)

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Procedure

1. Place a strawberry in a zip-closure bag and remove most of the air before
you seal the bag.
2. Mash the strawberry through the bag in your hand. Do not hit against the
table.
3. Add 2 tablespoons of the DNA extracting solution
4. Continue mixing and mashing the bag in your hand.
5. Place a piece of gauze over the opening of the cup and secure with a rubber
band.
6. Carefully pour the strawberry mixture into the cup making sure to catch the
solids with the gauze.
7. Take a dropper full of the liquid in the cup and place it in the test tube.
8. Add a dropper full of the methylated spirits the test tube.
9. DO NOT tilt or tip the test tube; DO NOT mix the two liquids.
9. Observe the line between the strawberry mixture and the ice cold ethanol.
10 You will notice a white thread-like cloud appearing at this line.
This is strawberry DNA. The DNA will clump together and float to the top of
the alcohol layer.

REFLECTION ON ACTIVITY:

1. Why do we use the dishwashing liquid?

2. Why do we use the salt?
3. What does the alcohol contribute to the experiment?

The Structure of DNA

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Each nucleic acid consists of a number of basic building blocks called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of three parts:
1 phosphate ion,
1 pentose sugar and
1 nitrogenous base.

The structure of a nucleotide:

phosphate

ion

pentose
nitrogenous base
sugar

 The phosphate and sugar form the backbone of the DNA molecule, whereas the bases form
the “rings”.
 There are four types of nitrogenous bases.
- Thymine
- Guanine
- Cytosine
- Adenine

Combination is ALWAYS:

Guanine Cytosine

Adenine Thymine

 A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein.

 Each unique gene has a unique sequence of bases.
 This unique sequence of bases will code for the production of a unique protein.
 It is these proteins and combination of proteins that give us a unique phenotype.

ACTIVITY 1.3

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 AIM- To enable participants to identify different parts of the DNA structure.

BACKGROUND: Teachers need to use creative ways to teach these abstract concepts to learners

METHOD: Use the template below and build a DNA molecule. The sequence of the left
hand strand Is as follow:

TAG-CGG-AAG
Paste your molecule on your page and label the structure.

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 REFLECTION:

Will you be able to use this activity in your classroom? Would you modify it and how?

2. DNA REPLICATION:

1. The double DNA helix unwinds.

2. Weak hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases break and two DNA strands unzip
(separate).
3. Each original DNA strand serves as a template on which its complement is built.
4. Free nucleotides build a DNA strand onto each of the original two DNA strands by
attaching to their complementary nitrogenous bases (A to T and C to G)
5. This results in two identical DNA molecules. Each molecule consists of one original strand
and one new strand

Step 1: DNA molecule unwinds (unzip)

Enzyme that
“unzips” helix is
DNA helicase

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 Step 2: New bases attach themselves

New bases

attached
Free nucleotides in
nucleoplasm themselves in the
correct place of
each strand

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Step 3: Two identical strands are formed. Each strand now becomes a double helix.
Strand 1 Strand 2

The significance of DNA replication:

 Important for growth and reparation
 Mutations in DNA could cause genetic variation.

3. DNA PROFILING
What is DNA profiling?
A technique used by scientists to distinguish between individuals of the same species using only
samples of their DNA.
The process is as follow:

- The nucleotides are separated from each other in the order that they are found in a
strand of DNA
- Nucleotides appear as dark bands
- The sequence of the bases in this segment is identified
- Use as DNA fingerprint
- Unique for every person

What is DNA profiling used for:

Solving crimes
Paternity tests
Identifying bodies

The process followed in paternity cases are:

[Link] potential father, mother and child’s DNA profiles are compared next to each other. (All three
persons’ DNA bands are on same diagram).
2. Eliminate all the bands that match the mother.
3. All the remaining bands are compared to the father and if all the remaining bands correspond
with the DNA bands of the potential father , he is the biological father.

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Below are six different persons’ DNA profiles depicted with the dark bands. You can see
who is related by using a ruler to see which bands correspond with each other. There are
twins here; can you see who are twins?

Solving crimes by using a DNA fingerprint:

• A useful but controversial method.

• A sample of a suspect’s bodily fluid or tissue is to be compared with a sample found at the
scene of a crime.
• The pattern of lines represents a person’s specific genetic make-up.
• DNA fingerprinting used in 11/9 disaster to identify victims.

4. RNA

There are three types of RNA molecules, namely messenger RNA (mRNA); transfer RNA (tRNA) and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

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1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Has the same sequence of bases as the DNA strand that has the gene sequence. Acts as a template
for protein synthesis.

2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

One for each triplet codon that codes for a specific amino acid.
tRNA molecules are covalently attached to the corresponding amino acid at one end.
At the other end they have a triplet sequence (called the anti-codon) that is complementary to the
triplet codon on the mRNA.

3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Make up an integral part of the ribosome, the protein synthesis machinery in the cell. (Not
examinable).

Differences between the different nucleic acids:

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 ACTIVITY 1.4

AIM- To enable participants to identify different parts of the DNA structure, answer questions
pertaining to DNA profiling and distinguish between DNA and RNA structure.

BACKGROUND: DNA and RNA molecules form an integral part in protein synthesis, it is
important that learners know the difference.

METHOD: Answer the following questions.

1..1

The diagram below represents a process involving DNA.

1.1.1 Identify the process illustrated in the diagram above.

1.1.2 Identify the monomer X.

1.1.3 Using the key provided, give the names for 1 and 2 respectively.

1.1.4 What is the natural shape of the molecule represented?

1.1.5 Name the type of bond that is formed between 1 and 2.

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1.2

A freshly smoked cigarette was found near the body of a murdered woman. Forensic
specialists made a DNA profile from traces of saliva (not belonging to the murdered
victim) found on the cigarette. Four suspects were required to give DNA samples to
forensic officers and the following profiles were made:

Saliva

1.3
Tabulate
the

Who is most likely the murderer?

A Ben
B Jane
C Adam
D Donald

differences between DNA and RNA

UNIT 3: How do transcription and translation fit into protein synthesis?

1. The importance of proteins:

 Play essential roles in the cells of all living creatures.

 They serve as building blocks of cells, control chemical reactions, and transport materials to
and from cells.
 Composed of long chains of amino acids.
 The specific sequence of amino acids in a chain determines the exact function of the protein.

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2. The process of protein synthesis

Protein synthesis takes place in two steps namely transcription and translation. The two steps will
now be dealt with in detail.

Transcription:

 Takes place in the nucleus

 Double stranded DNA unzips
 When the weak hydrogen bonds break
 One strand is used as a template
 To form mRNA
 Using free mRNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
 mRNA is complementary to the DNA
 mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and attaches to the ribosome

REMEMBER:
DNA RNA
T–A U–A
G–C G-C

mRNA

DNA template
free mRNA
nucleotides from the
nucleoplasm

Translation:

 Takes place in cytoplasm

 Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid
 When the anticodon on the tRNA
 Matches the codon on the mRNA
 Then tRNA brings required amino acid the ribosome
 Amino acids become attached by peptide bonds
 To form the required protein

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 mRNA

Amino acids become

attached by peptide
bond

Each protein is formed specifically to the genetic code stored on the DNA in the nucleus of every cell
in the organism. Any change during this coding process will result in a gene mutation.

The following table indicates how an amino acid’s anticodon on the tRNA, codon on the mRNA and
base triplet on DNA are related. Note the difference regarding the thymine and uracil.

Amino Acid Base triplet of DNA Codon of mRNA Anticodon of tRNA

* Contains Thymine * Each Codon is * Each Anticodon is

not Uracil complementary complementary
(opposite) to the DNA (opposite) to the Codon
base triplet but contains and similar to the DNA
Uracil – not Thymine base triplet but contains
Uracil – not Thymine

Alanine CGA GCU CGA

Histidine GTC CAG GUC

Valine CAT GUA CAU

Serine AGA UCU AGA

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 ACTIVITY 1.5

AIM: To practice the difference in transcription and translation.

BACKGROUND: The application of translation and transcription is tested in the examinations and
learners need to be able to do both.

Method: Follow the steps in number 1 in order to build a protein synthesis “cupboard” and
answer question 2.

1.

Use an A4 piece of paper.

Fold it like a cupboard

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Fill in the left side as illustrated in the next photo:

This is the DNA template strand. Open the right hand flap and fill in the complimentary mRNA
bases.

After you have done this, open the left hand flap and fill in the tRNA complementary bases.

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 Lastly, return to front right hand flap and complete the right hand of the DNA strand.

Reflection on activity

Lead learners to see that tRNA corresponds with the DNA template strand, the only difference is
that thiamine is replaced with uracil.

You could bring in a mutation here as well; if one code is incorrectly transcribed then the
anticodon will be wrong/ changed.

Discuss any other additions to this method.

ACTIVITY 1.6

AIM: To practice the SBA before the learners have to do it.

Method: Follow the instructions below:

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This task consists of three sections:

- A hands-on activity on protein synthesis,

- A worksheet on the structure of DNA

- A worksheet on protein synthesis.

Note to teacher: ALL SECTIONS MUST BE COMPLETED INDIVIDUALLY UNDER SUPERVISED

CONDITIONS IN THE CLASSROOM.

SECTION A

How DNA controls the workings of a cell

A gene is a segment of DNA that provides the instructions for making a protein and
proteins influence our characteristics (the way we look). Thus, each gene contains a
specific sequence of nucleotides which gives the instructions for the specific sequence of
amino acids that will be joined together to form a protein. The sequence of amino acids
in the protein determines the structure and function of the protein.

Protein synthesis – A Polypeptide Activity

1. Materials

 A2 paper (Paste 4 A4 sheets together)

 Scissors
 Cellotape
 Glue
 Colouring pencils (optional)
 Attachments: nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosome, DNA, mRNA, tRNA, amino acids,
peptide bonds, amino acid codon chart.

2. Instructions

Individual work only

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1. Choose one of the four DNA codes on page 4. You will therefore make ONE
polypeptide chain.

2. Use the different parts and words from the attachments supplied to you (pages 3 – 5)
to illustrate the process of protein synthesis. Look at the A2 paper and decide

where you will place the nucleus, cytoplasm and ribosome. Use a scissor to cut

them out but do not paste them down yet.

3. Go to the nucleus with the mRNA paper strips and transcribe the DNA code from the
nucleus to the mRNA molecule. Place the mRNA code next to the DNA. Place

another copy of the mRNA at the ribosome. (You will therefore make two exact

copies of mRNA)

4. Translate the code on the codon and write the anti-codon on the bottom of

each tRNA molecule. Place the tRNA anti-codons in the correct sequence

underneath the mRNA on the A2 paper.

5. Use the codon chart to look up the amino acids represented by each anti-codon.

6. Place the amino acids in their correct sequence next to each other (underneath the

anti-codons) to form a polypeptide chain.

7. Paste everything down. Supply labels.

8. Write your name and date at the back of the A2 sheet and hand in for assessment by

your teacher.

(10)

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 SECTION B

DNA Structure: Complete all answers on this worksheet

QUESTION 1

The diagram below shows the structure of a DNA molecule. Study the structure and answer the
questions that follow.

1.1 On the diagram above:

 Circle and label a nucleotide. (1)

 Label the sugar and phosphate molecules. (2)

 Label the bases that are not already labeled. (2)

 Label a base pair. (1)

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  Label the sugar – phosphate backbones. (1)

 Label the weak hydrogen bonds. (1)

1.2 In a strand of DNA, if the percentage of thymine is 30%, what would the percentage of

cytosine in the same DNA strand be?

______________________________________________________________ (2)

(10)

SECTION C

QUESTION 2

Gene to Protein

Below are two partial sequences of DNA bases (shown for only one strand of DNA).
Sequence 1 is from a human and sequence 2 is from a cow. In both humans and cows,
this sequence is part of a set of instructions for controlling a bodily function. In this case,
the sequence contains the gene to make the protein insulin. Insulin is necessary for the
uptake of sugar from the blood.

DNA sequence 1: Human

CCA TAG CAC GTA TGA TAA

DNA sequence 2: Cow

CCG TAG CAT GTT TGA CAC

2.1. Comparing the human gene to the cow gene, how many codons are exactly in the

same sequence?

________________________________________________________________
(1)

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2.2. Use the cow sequence and write down the tRNA anti-codons.

_________________________________________________________________
(1)

2.3. How many amino acids in the Human are in the same sequence as in the Cow?

(Use the codon chart on page 6).

_________________________________________________________________
(2)

2.4 Fill in the complimentary DNA strand below using DNA base pairing rules.
(2)

2.5 Fill in the correct mRNA bases by transcribing the DNA template strand in question 2.4.

(2)

2.6 Translate the mRNA codons (Question 2.5) and find the correct amino acid using the Amino
acid codon table on page 6. Write the amino acids in the large circles below.

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 (2)

(10)

TOTAL: 30

REFLECTION ON ACTIVITY:

How would you administer this SBA? What precautions do you need to implement before you
administer the SBA?

RESOURCE

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

MODULE SUMMARY

This topic is an important building block for the understanding of genetics and inheritance as well as
evolution. It is important that learners understand this section well so that they could link it with the
other topics that will be dealt with in the rest of the year.

The following points are important to remember:

 The structures of DNA and RNA is NB

 The differences between DNA, mRNA and tRNA are important.
 DNA profiling is important for application questions.
 DNA replication and transcription are confused - ensure differentiated understanding.
 Transcription and translation must be learnt by heart.

REFERENCES

 DBE Exam guidelines for learners

 GDE ATP
 2015-2019 NSC past papers

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 2014-2018 national diagnostic report on learner performance
 Approved grade 12 national textbooks
 ‘Mind the Gap’

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