05-BMG-PP1 Physical Principles of Geosciences I
05-BMG-PP1-1 Physics of the Solid Earth
01-00-04-PhyNMG-V/-Ü Physics for Natural Science I
Deformation mechanisms
gussinye@[Link]
GEO R 4310
Prof. Marta Perez Gussinye
Schedule
Date Class
19/10/23 Introduction in the Physics of Solid Earth
26/10/23 -
02/11/23 Introduction to plate tectonics
Seismology I: Strength, Stress, strain, Elastic behaviour, Hooke’s law, elasticity moduli,
09/11/23
stress-strain curves, yield strength
Seismology II: Seismic waves: wavelengths, periods and frequencies, types of seismic
16/11/23
waves: body and surface waves, seismic velocities, Earth’s structure
Seismology III: Huygens and Snell principles, reflection, refraction, conversion,
23/11/23
absorption, divergence, travel time curves: 2 layers and multiple layers case
Seimology IV: Phases of a seismogram, Raypaths in Earth, shadow zones, Earth´s
30/11/23
structure from travel time paths
07/12/23 Seimology V: recording of seismic waves, principles of the seismometer
14/12/23 Seismology VI: First motion, hypocenter location, seismological grids
21/12/23 Seismology VII: seismic tomography; Seismology VIII: Prediction and geohazards
11/01/24 -
18/01/24 Deformation mechanisms I: Rheology, elasticity, plasticity, viscosity
25/01/23 SUMMARY
01/02/24 EXAM
Modes of loading in Geology
• Rifting produces extensional
stress on tectonic plates.
• Mountain building and oceanic
subduction produces
compressional stress of the
plates.
• Ice sheet loading and unloading
results in plate bending.
• Carbon and hydrogen storage
generates internal pressures.
In all these examples a load is applied over a specific area.
What impact does the load have on the rock and how can
we visualize it?
Let’s imagine a cube of rock which is being loaded
with equal and opposite forces, 𝐹, perpendicular its
top and bottom sides, which have an area, 𝐴0 .
The stress in
the cube is:
𝐹 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑁)
Stress = 𝜎 = 𝐴0
=
𝑚2
= 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠 (𝑃𝑎)
Short summary Class 3
• We learned about three different stress cases:
Occur when an equal force,
Occur when the force is Occurs when the force is
either tensile or compressive,
perpendicular to the material applied paralel to the material
is applied to all surfaces of
surface surface
our material cube.
Short Summary Class 3
• Shape changes when stress is applied. The response to stress is called strain.
• We have 3 strains corresponding to the 3 stresses we defined:
Tensile Strain Compressive Strain
Shear strain Hydrostatic strain
(Dilation)
Short summary
• Stress-strain curves are linear for elastic material.
• This linear relationship is called Hooke’s law and can be
𝜎
represented mathematically by: = 𝐸 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔
𝜀
𝜏
• Shear modulus: 𝐺 = Shear strain: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 =
𝑊
≈𝛾
𝛾 𝐿
𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑉0
• Bulk modulus: 𝐾 = 𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: ∆=
∆ 𝑉0
−𝜀𝑡
• Poisson’s ratio: 𝜐 =
𝜀
Rock Deformation and Rheology
Rocks can experience 3 types of deformation, according to conditions of stress,
strain rates and pressure-temperature, P-T, conditions:
Earth is therefore a visco-elasto-plastic material. In continuum mechanics,
rheology (the study of material flow → deformation) is used to characterize
the mechanical behaviour.
Viscous Deformation
At high temperatures and for long lasting mechanical stresses, rocks deform by solid-state
creep (i.e., slow flow):
Viscous Deformation
Constitutive equation between deviatoric stress and
rate of irreversible strain is given by the Newton law
of viscous friction (for irreversible deformation of fluids):
Stress Viscosity Strain rate
Resistance to flow under applied stress is given by the material viscosity η
that is due to friction between neighbouring parcels of the fluid that are
moving at different velocities. Hence, stresses are produced when velocity
gradients establish.
Viscous creep deformation mechanisms
Creep is a thermally activated process, and it is described by Arrhenius-type
equation.
At high temperatures:
• Low stress and small grain size -> Diffusion creep
• Medium to high stress -> Dislocation creep
Viscous creep deformation mechanisms: Diffusion creep
Deformation accommodated by diffusion creep, occurs by diffusion of
point defects through the interior of crystals subjected to stress. The
smallest the grain, the fastest atoms and vacancies movement.
Hence diffusion creep is favoured by small grains.
Check:
[Link]
Viscous creep deformation mechanisms: Dislocation creep
At high temperatures, medium deviatoric stresses, large grain sizes d,
deformation is accommodated by dislocation creep, where the rate of
deformation is controlled by movement of dislocations (linear defects) along
specific planes through the interior of crystals subjected to stress. Check:
[Link]
Strain rate is independent of the grain
size d, but depends non-linearly on
the deviatoric stress→→non-
Newtonian (power-law) viscous flow
Deformation Mechanisms
• Dislocation/Diffusion creep
𝑛 𝐸𝑁 −𝑝𝑉𝑁
• 𝜀𝑁
ሶ = 𝐵𝑁 ∙ 𝜏𝐼𝐼 ∙ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
𝑅𝑇
• Depends on:
• Material constants
• Stress
• Temperature
• Since temperature is in exponent there is no viscous deformation close to surface
Visco-Elastic deformation
The Maxwell relaxation time describes the relative
importance of elastic vs viscous behaviour.
𝜂 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝜏𝑀 =
𝐸 (𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠)
The Maxwell relaxation time describes the relative
importance of elastic vs viscous behaviour.
For mantle 𝜂 = 1021 Pa.s and E =1011 Pa,
Therefore 𝜏𝑀 ~ 103 years -->
• Seismic wave propagation in mantle is elastic
(as it occurs over very short time intervals)
• Deformation related to long-term tectonic
stresses, such as mountain building, mantle
convection… is viscous.
Maxwell’s Body
Deformation Mechanisms: visco-elasto-plastic
Is it reversible?
YES! NO
ELASTIC Is there discontinuity?
YES! NO
PLASTIC (commonly brittle) VISCOUS
Plasticity
• Plasticity
• 𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜ℎ + 𝜇 ∗ 𝜎𝑛
• Typical Byerlee friction 0.6-0.85
• For damaged materials with high fluid
pressure down to 0.01
• Typical cohesion ~40 MPa
Friction angle
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝜇 = 𝑡𝑔𝛼
𝛼
Strength Envelope
cohesion
Yield stress
depth
Strength envelope – is minimum of plastic and viscous stresses
Ductile Deformation vs Yield Stress
• As long as stress is lower than yield stress for given
material no plastic failure can occur
• Which means all deformations are in elastic or viscous
mode
• Elastic deformations are instantaneous
• After application of stress material will deform in elastic
way and then viscously relax into ductile deformation
Strength Envelope
stress
Brittle-ductile transition
(depends on temperature,
depth Rock content, stress state)
Strength Envelope: Temperature
stress stress stress
depth
depth
depth
Higher temperature
Strength Envelope: rock type
stress stress stress
depth
depth
depth
Mafic Granulite Anorthosite Wet Wet Quartzite
Lower Crustal
Rheology
Examples
Different lithospheric strength profiles based on Temperature
and lower crustal rheology
Wet Quartzite (WQ) Anorthite (AN) Mafic Granulite (MG)
Lithospheric mantle (LM) Asthenospheric mantle (AM)
Upper/Lower crust Lower crust Lower crust
Structure of the Earth
(Viscous
(Rigid)
Asthenosphere)
(Granitic and basaltic rocks)
(silicates)
(Rigid)
(Liquid)
(iron, nickel, sulphur)
Example of a 2D visco-elasto-plastic model of rifting
Short Summary
• Rocks can experience 3 types of deformation, according to conditions of stress,
strain rates and pressure-temperature, P-T, conditions: elastic, viscous and
plastic/brittle.
• At high temperatures, rocks deform by viscous creep.
• Viscous creep can occur by dislocation or diffusion creep.
• The Maxwell time gives an indication for the relative importance of viscous vs.
elastic deformation.
• For loading processes occurring at times smaller than Maxwell time, deformation
is elastic and viceversa.
• Whether the mantle behaves elastically or viscously can be assessed from the
duration of the loading process in comparison to Maxwell time.
• Plastic/brittle deformation occurs typically at low temperatures and pressures.
• Yield strength envelopes can be constructed with brittle and viscous deformation
laws.
• Yield strength envelope depends on rock type, pressure and geothermal gradient
(at first order).