Chapter 1

Psychology: A Scientific Discipline

Tanuja Gadgil
I. Types of Science
The word science is derived from the Latin word Scientia which means knowledge. Science is
the pursuit & application of knowledge & understanding of the natural & social world
following a systematic methodology based on evidence.
Sciences are broadly classified into 3 groups-
Physical Science (Physics, Chemistry, geology)
Biological Science (zoology, botany, physiology)
social science (psychology, sociology, economics)
The physical sciences mainly study inanimate or natural elements. The biological sciences
mainly study the human & animal anatomy & vital processes of plants & animals. The social
sciences study the human behavior, social relationships & the structure of the society.
II. Key features of science-
The word science is derived from the Latin word Scientia which means knowledge. Science is
the pursuit & application of knowledge & understanding of the natural & social world
following a systematic methodology based on evidence. The following are the key features of
science-
1. Empirical Evidence- refers to acquiring information through direct observations or
experiments.
Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence so that other investigators can observe
or measure the same phenomena & verify its accuracy in future.
2. Objectivity- Objectivity means the ability to see and accept the facts as they are and not
as the investigator might wishes them to be.
Objectivity means the individual needs to keep all sources of biases, prejudices, beliefs,
wishes, values, preferences, etc. aside while studying a particular phenomenon.
3. Scientific causality- means finding out the cause-effect relationship between variables
under consideration. The researcher needs to control all the extraneous variables to find out
the effect of the independent variable (cause) on the dependent variable (effect)
4. Systematic Exploration- means a sequential procedure for studying a particular
phenomenon. Systematic exploration involves scientific steps which are as follows-
identifying the problem, formulation of hypothesis, collection of facts, analysis of facts,
scientific generalization, and prediction.
5. Replication- means to reproduce scientific knowledge under the same circumstances
stated at any place & at any time. It helps to ensure that the results are reliable & helps
establish scientific theory.
6. Predictability- refers to not just describing the phenomenon being studied but also
explaining it & making predictions. It is an important feature of science.
III. History of psychology as a science Refer to the textbook Pg. No.3
IV. Features of psychology (ACTIVITY 2 of the textbook)
Psychology is not a pure science like physics & chemistry & the theories of psychology are
not as universal, exact, and precise as those in physics and chemistry. It is a social
science that studies human & animal behavior & mental processes. Psychology uses some
objective research methods, it examines cause-and-effect relationships to produce laws
governing human behavior and its findings can be verified. Psychology can be
distinguished from pseudoscience & folk wisdom as the theories explaining human
behavior in psychology have ample evidence. The study of psychology is complex because
of the dynamic nature of human behavior & the abstract nature of mental processes.
V. Research Methods in Psychology
A. Experimental Method Experiment is defined as the observation made under controlled
conditions for a given problem. It is the most scientific method of studying behavior. It has
given psychology the status of science.
The steps in experimental method are as follows-
1. Identifying the problem
2. Developing hypothesis
3. Selecting the experimental design & standardizing the experimental procedure
4. Conducting experiment & collecting data
5. Analyzing the data
6. Drawing conclusions
Key Terms in an experimental method-
1. Problem: is the question that the experimenter is trying to find the answer through their
research. E.g.- To study the effect of music on the level of blood pressure.
2. Hypothesis: is a tentative statement about cause effect that can be tested to determine if
it is true. E.g.- music will help in regulating the level of blood pressure.
3. Independent variable: is that variable that is manipulated/controlled/altered by the
experimenter whose effect the experimenter is trying to study. E.g.- Music
4. Dependent variable: is the variable being studied in an experiment which changes due to
manipulation of the independent variable. E.g.- blood pressure
5. Intervening variables: are those variables which influence the dependent variable but
the researcher may not be interested in examining its effect so he controls them. E.g.- Age,
gender, all other sounds other than music.
6. Experimenter: A person who will be conducting the experiment.
7. Participant: A person on whom the experiment is conducted.
Some of the important features of experimental method can be explained as follows:
1. Experimental method is one of the most objective methods of collecting data.
2. It enables accurate observations in controlled conditions.
3. Experimental method helps in finding out the cause-and-effect relationship between two
or more variables.
4. The findings of the experimental method are verifiable.
Limitation- Certain aspects of human behavior cannot be studied by the experimental
method due to ethical constraints & some risk factors involved.
B. Correlation studies
Correlation is a statistical technique used to study the relationship between two or more
variables. If change in one variable appears to be accompanied by a change in other variable
the 2 variables are said to be correlated & this interdependence is called correlation. For
example, if a student spends more time in studying, he scores higher marks.
Scientific studies which make use of correlation as a statistical tool to understand the
relation among variables are called correlation studies.
Correlation coefficient is a value that measures the extent or magnitude/ strength of
correlation between 2 variables. It is a number between -1.00 to +1.00. The sign of
correlation coefficient indicates the direction of correlation which can be positive or negative.
There are 3 types of correlation-
1. Positive Correlation-
In this type of correlation both the variables change in the same direction i.e., as one
variable increases the other variable also increases or as one variable decreases the other
variable also decreases. For positive correlation the value of correlation is found between
0.00 to +1.00 E.G. - The amount of rehearsal & recall score.
2. Negative Correlation-
In this type of correlation both the variables change in the opposite direction i.e., as one
variable increases the other variable decreases or if one variable decreases the other
increases. Negative correlation ranges from 0.00 to -1.00 E.G. - Amount of exercise & level of
body fats.
3. Zero Correlation-
When any change in one variable brings no change in other variable, they are said to have
zero correlation. The value of correlation coefficient is 0. E.G- height & intelligence.
C. Observation method
Observation consists of the observer simply observing a particular behavior or event &
taking notes of the observed event & making a record of what is observed. This method is
useful in areas where experiment cannot be conducted. Observation can be treated as a
scientific method when used with a specific purpose & planned in a systematic way. It is
used by child, clinical & social psychologist.
Observation is of 2 types-
1. Natural observation- this involves observing the behavior of participants in the natural
setting. The researcher simply records what they see. They are interested in observing the
person’s unaltered behavior.
2. Controlled observation- is carried out in a laboratory setting. The researcher decides
where the observation will take place, with which participants, using a proper procedure and
design.
D. Survey Method- A survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a
pre-defined group of respondents to gain information & insights on various topics of interest
such as political opinion, consumer preferences. Survey method is an economic & an
efficient method of data collection. Surveys can be undertaken using email, telephonic calls,
or direct interaction with respondents. Survey method makes use of questionnaires,
checklists, rating scales, inventories, interviews to collect the required information. The
survey method is largely used by social psychologists, educational psychologists, industrial
psychologists etc.
E. Case study method
Case study is one of the qualitative research methods used in psychology. Case study is
an in-depth look at an individual, group, or a particular event. Case study can be treated
as a scientific method as it provides rich descriptive information often suggesting
hypotheses for further studies.
In case study method, a researcher collects information about a particular individual
(case) from multiple sources such as parents, family members, peers, teachers, colleagues,
etc. to assess the individual’s current level of psychological functioning. A researcher while
using case study method may use several techniques like observation, interview,
psychological tests, etc. to collect information about a particular individual.
This method is mostly used by clinical psychologists. Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget were
the two important figures to use case study method widely. For example- Dr. Sigmund
Freud’s case study of ‘Anna O’ played a remarkable role in the establishment & development
of psychoanalysis by Dr. Freud.
VI. Challenges in establishing psychology as a science
Psychology has many controversies & criticisms despite being considered as a scientific
discipline. These criticisms are based on are made on the following grounds-Theoretical
ground, Practical ground, Ethical ground, Philosophical ground
The challenges in establishing psychology as a science which are explained as follows-
1. Psychology in pre-paradigmatic state- In comparison to pure sciences like physics &
chemistry psychology is a younger social science. Pure sciences are paradigmatic which
means that they have fixed set of rules & theories. According to philosopher Thomas Kuhn
psychology is still in a pre-paradigmatic state i.e. it still does not have a fixed set of rules &
theories. Psychology still does not have a cumulative body of knowledge that is agreed by
experts in the field.
2. Issues related to objectivity & validity- Many methods in psychology are subjective
rather than objective. For example, psychoanalysis. Research in various areas of psychology
such as personality, leadership, creativity, emotions etc. rely on soft research methods such
as surveys & questionnaires. It is difficult to establish validity of these methods.
3. Issues related to predictability & replicability- a major goal of psychology is to predict
behavior by understanding its causes. It is difficult to make exact predictions in psychology
as people tend to respond differently in different situations. Human behavior is difficult to
study than studying chemicals. So, the results in psychology are more varied harder to
control & difficult to replicate.
4. Objectifying humans- some existential & humanistic psychologists criticize that
psychologists tend to objectify people by subjecting human behavior to experimentation.
According to them psychology tends to treat human beings as objects that can be examined
through experiments. Hence psychology gets portrayed as dehumanizing when in fact
psychology is all about being human.
VII. Importance of Rationality-
Rationality is an important concept in science as well as in psychology. Stanovich et al
defined rationality as “Rationality involves adaptive reasoning, good judgement and good
decision making.” Dr. Albert Ellis proposed Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy. It is one of
the effective and popular method of intervention in the field of counselling psychology. He
has given values of rational living. He also says that rational people are psychologically
healthy people and they possess certain characteristics. Some of them are as follows:
a. Understanding self-interest & social interest- rational individual maintain the balance
between taking care of themselves as well as others. They believe in the slogan “safeguard
your self-interest & also know the interests of others. Rational individuals can promote their
own growth & take responsibility of their own choices & at the same time do not violate the
rights of others. This aids in the survival of society.
b. Self-direction- Rational individual take up responsibility of their own life. They do not
demand or need excessive support or nurturance from others.
c. Tolerance- is the willingness to accept behavior & beliefs of others that are different from
one’s own. Rational individuals are highly tolerant. They accept their own faults & also can
forgive the mistakes of others.
d. Flexibility- they are emotionally healthy. They are flexible in their thinking & are
unbiased in their thoughts & actions.
e. self- acceptance & self-responsibility- rational individuals accept themselves
unconditionally. They do not try to rate themselves or prove themselves to the world. They
also accept complete responsibility for their own thoughts, beliefs, feelings & actions.
 According to Dr. Albert Ellis, rationality as a personal philosophy helps an individual
to attain many goals in life and to be happy. For being happy a person must BE
RATIONAL. This concept is explained with the help of the following table:

B (Balance) Balance between self-interest and interest of others