Chapter 5

Emotions
Tanuja Gadgil

1. DEFINITION OF EMOTION
Emotions have great importance in human life. Life without emotions is unimaginable. Just as salt
adds taste to food in the same way emotions add spice to life. Emotions are a two-edged sword
when we handle & express them in a healthy way it makes life meaningful but if not handled
properly, they can create problems.
The word Emotion is derived from the Latin word ‘Emovere’ which means to stir up or move.
Emotions can be defined as a combination of bodily arousal, expressive behaviour, thoughts & feelings.
According to David G Meyers, ‘Human emotion involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviour & a
conscious experience.
Components of the definition-
1. Bodily Arousal- When a person experiences an emotion it leads to the physiological arousal
because of the activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. This leads to
the increase in heart rate, breathing becomes rapid, pupils dilate & the mouth may become dry.
2. Expressive Behaviour- i.e., whenever a person experiences an emotion, it is always accompanied
by facial expressions (frown, smile), body movements & change in body posture that indicate to the
other person how a person is feeling.
3. Feeling & thought- an emotional experience is always accompanied by a change in the tone of
voice & the emotions also lead to a change in the thinking process of the person.
2. THEORIES OF EMOTIONS
1. James-Lange Theory-William James & Carl Lange gave this theory. According to this theory a
stimulus produces a physiological reaction by activating the sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system causing bodily arousal such as increased heart rate, dry mouth, rapid breathing
etc. According to this theory the person experiences an emotion because of the physiological
arousal. Feedback from the physiological arousal & from the muscles involved causes the emotion.
E.G.- you are walking in the woods & you see a lion roaring at you. You begin to tremble & your
heart beat increases. According to this theory we do not tremble & run because we are afraid, we
are afraid because we tremble & run. Thus, physiological reactions cause emotional experience. (I
am trembling so I am afraid)

Stimulus Physiological arousal emotion

Criticisms of the James-Lange Theory-

a. On many occasions we experience physiological changes but do not experience emotion e.g.-
joggers have a pounding heart but there is no associated emotion.
b. With the same physiological arousal, people can experience different emotions. E.g.- a person
may have racing heart both when he is angry and when he is afraid
2. Cannon-Bard Theory- Walter Cannon & Philip Bard gave this theory. According to this theory
an external stimulus activates the thalamus which in turn does two things- sends signals to the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system causing physiological changes & at the same
time sends a message to the emotional centre that results in feeling of emotion. The messages are
sent simultaneously & not one after the other. According to this theory the stimulating event
triggers feelings & physical reactions at the same time. They suggest that both the physical & the
emotional reaction occur simultaneously & independently i.e., one does not cause the other.
E.G.- A person is walking on the road & he sees a ferocious dog barking & running towards him
due this stimulus the person simultaneously experiences an emotion i.e., fear & physiological
arousal. According to this theory both these reactions occur simultaneously & independently.

Physiological Arousal
Stimulus Thalamus
Emotion

3. Schachter- Singer’s Theory/ Two Factor theory of Emotion-

Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer gave the two-factor theory of emotion. According to the two-
factor theory of emotion, emotion is a result of the interaction of physiological arousal & the
cognitive label the person attaches to explain the stirred-up state. According to them the individual
labels the physiological arousal depending on the cognitive interpretation of the situation. The
interpretation determines what emotion will be experienced. E.g., the individual labels the stirred-
up state as joy, fear, anger depending on how he interprets the situation.
E.g.- A man leaps out from behind the car in a deserted parking lot this triggers physiological
arousal. The arousal is interpreted by the brain in terms of the situation & past knowledge of
robbing in the deserted parking lot. At this point according to the theory the state of arousal is
labelled as an emotion i.e., fear.

Physiological Arousal
Stimulus Emotion

Cognitive label

Facial feedback hypothesis- According to this hypothesis our facial expressions provide feedback
to our brain concerning our emotions. In other words, facial expressions are not only the result of
our emotions but can influence our emotions. For example, if we smile, we automatically start
feeling happier from within.
According to this theory when an individual encounters a stimulus it arouses the autonomic
nervous system & the facial muscles leading to the physiological arousal & causing a facial
expression. The brain interprets the arousal & facial expression leading to the experience of
emotion. Thus, the facial expressions not only cause emotions but also intensify it.
3. BASIC EMOTIONS
There are two primary emotions i.e., Happiness & sadness based on life experiences, happiness can
be transformed to joy & sadness can be transformed to grief. At times emotions can be so intense
then an individual’s perception, decision and action are influenced by emotions.
Some emotions occur for a brief period like anger where as other emotions are long lasting such as
love. Some emotions are essential for survival such as fear & some emotions are essential for
mental well being such as happiness. Emotions can be socially appropriate like showing sadness at
a funeral.
Primary emotions are the base & the combination of these basic emotions lead to complex
emotions. Some examples of complex/higher emotions include love, guilt, shame, pride etc.
Researchers have differences in opinion regarding the number of basic emotions but the following
two theories about basic emotions are accepted-
1. Paul Ekman’s theory
2. Plutchik’s Model.
1. Paul Ekman’s Theory
Paul Ekman believed that a person experiences six basic emotions which are explained as follows-
1. Happiness- is the most positive emotion which everyone experiences & is associated with
satisfaction, contentment & joy. It is closely associated with an individual’s psychological well -
being, health, longevity. E.g.- one experiences happiness when the individual has achieved a goal.
2. Sadness- is associated with related feelings like disappointment, grief, hopelessness. It is
opposite of happiness and is normal to be sad at times. However prolonged sadness can turn in to
depression. There are some coping strategies to deal with the sadness.
E.g.- sadness may be experienced when a close friend relocates to another country.
3. Anger- is a very powerful emotion which includes hostility, agitation, frustration Anger is often
displayed through facial expressions, body language, tone of voice & aggressive behavior. Anger is
two-sided sword which can be good or bad. E.g.- a person gets angry at the other driver as his car
is dented in an accident.
4. Fear- is a powerful emotion which is closely related to our survival from the evolutionary point of
view. Fear is also associated with fight or flight response because fear indicates threat. For
example- A girl is afraid to tell her parents that she failed in her exams.
5. Surprise is associated with a physiological state of response after some unexpected event.
Surprise can be positive as well as negative. Surprise can sometimes increase adrenaline which will
further prepare body for fight or flight. E.g., a person experiences surprise on meeting an old friend
after many years suddenly.
6. Disgust- according to evolutionary theory disgust evolved as a reaction to foods that might be
harmful or fatal. It is a common reaction given to taste or smell that has gone bad. Even other
unwanted situations of life can also lead to experience of disgust. People may experience moral
disgust when they observe others engaging in immoral behavior. Example- one can experience
moral disgust on hearing an incident of moral disgust.
2. Plutchik’s model
Robert Plutchik created this model of emotions. This model helps bring clarity to emotions which
are at times mysterious & overwhelming. It is a great framework for understanding emotions. In
this model there are 8 basic emotions-Joy, Trust, Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Anticipation, Anger,
Disgust
 The wheel of Emotions-
According to Plutchik emotions have evolved over a period
& play an important role in the process of survival. In the
wheel primary emotions are in the second circle. Each
emotion has an opposite located in front of it. The emotions
which are outside the circle are a mix of the two primary
emotions. For example- Joy & trust combine to be love.
Thus, making us realize that emotions are complex &
helping one realize that emotions are combinations of 2
feelings is a helpful skill.
Emotions intensify as one moves from the outside to the
centre of the wheel which is indicated by the colour. The
darker the shade the more intense the emotion. For example- Anger at its least level of intensity is
annoyance & at its highest level of intensity becomes rage.
Importance of Plutchik’s Model of Emotions:
Plutchik’s model is important for improving emotional literacy. Emotional literacy is the ability to
put emotions into words, to understand how different emotions are related to each other & how
they tend to change over a period.
Emotions if left unchecked can intensify. One needs to address them in a healthy way or it may
lead to unhealthy behavioural patterns or may be cause of psychological problems.
4. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING EMOTIONS
There are certain changes that occur when a person experiences an emotion. The changes occur at
the following levels-
• Cognitive level
• Physiological level
• Emotional level
• The last change to occur is the behavioural level or connation level.
The brain at the Cognitive level interprets the stimulus based on knowledge & past experiences.
EG- In the situation a man sees a snake & runs for safety the brain interprets the situation as
dangerous as based on his previous knowledge he knows the animal is poisonous & a threat to life.
This arouses physiological changes.
Physiological changes refer to automatic reactions that take place in the body due to the cognitive
interpretation. The cognitive interpretation activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system. So, the person experiences an increase in heart rate, pulse rate, blood pressure
etc. Apart from this the adrenal gland is also activated leading to the secretion of the cortisol
hormone & triggering the fight or flight response. Physiological changes which occur during
emotions are internal & external-
Internal changes include- Increase in heart rate, blood pressure, pulse rate, decrease in saliva etc
External changes- change in voice, facial expression dilation of pupils etc.
Strong basic emotions like Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Anger etc. are directly linked to physiological
changes which occur during emotions.
EG- So in the above example the person experiences various physiological reactions like increase in
heart rate, pulse rate, blood pressure & the activation of the fight & flight response etc.
The way the person interprets the situation & the physiological arousal leads him to experience an
emotion. The experience of emotion is the change at the emotional level. E.G- So the person in the
given example experiences fear.
The last level change that occurs is the change at the behavioural level i.e., the connation level
in which the person behaves in certain manner & he has an action plan. So, in the above example
the person runs for safety is the behavioural change.
5. EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING
Meaning of Emotional Well-being
Physical well-being is observable, whereas emotional well-being is innate & not easily [Link]
is measured based on how a person handles a situation in a calm, logical & rational manner. There
are several external stressors like peer pressure, exam pressure, family expectations which can
cause an individual to face negative emotions. The individual needs to ensure that he manages
these negative emotions so that they do not impact his life. Emotional well-being is defined as the
ability to manage one’s own emotions, encouraging positive emotions & not getting overwhelmed by
the situation. Thus, emotional well-being is about managing positive & negative emotions to lead a
healthy & productive life.
Techniques for achieving emotional well-being (aspects of emotional well-being)
After a lot of research researcher have identified certain techniques to achieve emotional well-being.
The techniques are explained as follows-
1. PHYSICAL
a. this involves exercising which releases endorphins, a chemical that makes one feel good &
acts as stress buster.
b. it includes eating a well-balanced healthy diet to provide adequate nutrition and avoid
health issues.
2. EMOTIONAL
a. Managing stress by raising levels of motivation, engaging in meaningful activities and hobbies,
and connecting with optimistic people.
b. Practising mindfulness and staying connected with the present rather than ruminate on the
past.
3. SOCIAL
a. Building meaningful relationships with others, which provides emotional support and boosts
morale.
b. Volunteering and engaging in prosocial acts develops self-esteem, confidence level, reduces
depression and develop feeling of gratitude.
Benefits of emotional well-being
1. Coping with stress-
• Emotional well-being helps to deal with stress in a better manner.
• The individual uses healthy methods- like talking to friends, exercise, etc. to cope.
2. Better Self-Regulation
 • Emotional well-being helps to deal with emotions such as anxiety, anger, and fear without
allowing the emotions to become overpowering.
• An emotionally intelligent person can label how they feel and accept that negative
emotions are a normal part of life.
3. Increase Productivity
• Feeling positive makes an individual feel energised, which helps in the performance of
various tasks like studying, playing etc.
• It enhances the ability to focus and think clearly.
4. Increased Creativity
• It leads to openness to new experiences and increases curiosity in life.
• It helps to think of different strategies to solve a problem.
5. life satisfaction-
• It helps to build relationships and have deep personal connections.
• Individuals high on emotional well-being perform activities like volunteering in social
service or philanthropic activities which helps give purpose and meaning to life.
6. EMOTIONAL ABUSE
Emotional abuse is a form of passive abuse wherein emotions are used to hurt & control the other
person. It is different from physical abuse which makes use of aggressive techniques like hitting,
kicking, pushing & other physical forms of harm to control another person. Emotional abuse is one
of the hardest forms of abuse to recognize as it is subtle or overt. It hampers self-esteem & lowers
the confidence of the victim. The scars of emotional abuse take time to heal as compared to scars of
physical abuse. In some cases, it leads to anxiety, depression & suicidal thoughts. The indicators of
emotional abuse are-
a. Unreasonable demands on the victim
b. Humiliation
c. Manipulation
d. Distancing the victim from others
e. Uncontrollable anger
f. Demanding the victim’s time & attention
g. undermining the victim’s self-worth
emotional abuse affects the victim’s health physical is affected. He has nightmares, is crying,
bedwetting, blood pressure, lack of sleep, panic attacks, suicidal thoughts, feelings of helplessness,
unhappy, lack of confidence, indulges in self-pity etc.
Types of Abuse-
1. Verbal Violence- It includes yelling, insulting, swearing, lecturing, ordering, unpredictable
outbursts, labelling, publicly embarrassing & blaming etc.
2. Non-Verbal Violence- It includes rejection, pretending not to notice, ignoring conversation,
isolation, bullying, digital spying.
Characteristics of a person prone to emotional abuse-
1. the person tries to prioritize others needs before his/her
2. always trying to please others
3. sacrificing for others even if they do not reciprocate
4. repressing one’s feelings
5. feeling guilty for standing up for oneself
6. feeling that one deserves poor treatment
7. believing that no one wants to be with them
Means to deal with emotional abuse-
It is essential to deal with emotional abuse & confront mistreatment. To deal with emotional abuse
one must break the silence & stand up for themself. Few ways to deal with emotional abuse are-
1. Accepting that abuse is not one’s responsibility
2. One should not justify the abuser’s behavior.
3. Disengaging and setting personal boundaries.
4. Responding to the abuser assertively and trying to seek distance from them.
4. Not giving immediate reaction to the abuser.
5. Taking time to heal.
6. Seeking professional help and guidance from a counselor
7. talking to friends, family, teachers who will be supportive you.
8. Practicing self-care techniques like going for walk, eating right food, or listening to music reduces
anxiety.
7. MANAGING EMOTIONS
Emotions have great importance in human life. Life without emotions is unimaginable. Just as salt
adds taste to food in the same way emotions add spice to life. Emotions are a two-edged sword
when we handle & express them in a healthy way it makes life meaningful but if not handled
properly, they can create problems.
Managing Emotions can be defined as ‘The ability to be open to feelings and modulate them in
oneself and others so as to promote personal understanding and growth.’
The limbic system which is the oldest part of the brain is the emotional centre. The limbic system
developed before the prefrontal cortex it is thinking part of the brain.
As the limbic system is the oldest & powerful part of the brain it does not allow the person to think
in a logical manner in an emotionally triggering situation. So, the individual acts in an impulsive
manner leading him to take wrong decisions.
Emotion management is an art as it is a form of expression as well as science as it is a skill that
needs to be learnt & practised. If a person ignores or supresses his emotions then it leads to
anxiety. The best way to manage emotion is to acknowledge the emotion, find out what is the cause
of that emotion & choosing the best way to respond to the situation.
8. What is anger?
Anger is expressed emotionally (feeling), cognitively (thinking), physically (bodily changes) &
behaviourally (through actions) There are many reasons to be angry overall there are 3 factors
involved-
a. Triggers
b. Individual’s personality
c. Interpretation of the event
Anger is a primary natural emotion expressing dislike or displeasure. It is a very common emotion
that everybody experiences in their life from time to time. It is a very common way of releasing a
negative feeling arising towards a person or a situation, event, or thing. According to layperson anger
is a negative emotion but it is not so. It is a protective emotion that helps people defend themselves
from physical and psychological threats.
9. Process of anger/How does anger happen? /How does your brain work when angry? (Please
define anger)
Cerebral Cortex a part of the forebrain is the thinking centre of the brain & is involved in reasoning
& judgement whereas the emotional centre of the brain is limbic system. It is located in the lower
section of the brain & is more primitive than the cortex. An area in the limbic system is the amygdala
which is the store house of emotion & plays an important role in the emotional outburst. When anger
is experienced, the amygdala goes into action & overrides the cerebral cortex which is in control of
thinking & evaluation.
The following process is involved when a person experiences anger-
In the first step the person receives a stimulus from the environment that triggers his anger. The
triggers of anger are any event that signals the brain to activate the body’s anger system. Once the
trigger is activated the angry feelings begin automatically.
In the second step this trigger passes through the amygdala where the decision is made whether to
send the data to the limbic system or the cerebral cortex. If the incoming data triggers enough of an
emotional charge the amygdala will send the data to the limbic system causing the person to react
without much regard to the consequences.
It takes 20 minutes for a person who has experienced an angry state to calm down & move the
functioning from the emotional area to the thinking area of the brain.
When a person understands the underlying reasons for the anger, they can anticipate potential anger
episodes and deal with it more appropriately.
[Link] OF ANGER
Anger is expressed emotionally (feeling), cognitively (thinking), physically (bodily changes) &
behaviourally (through actions) There are many reasons to be angry overall there are 3 factors
involved-
a. Triggers
b. Individual’s personality
c. Interpretation of the event
Anger is a primary natural emotion expressing dislike or displeasure. It is a very common emotion
that everybody experiences in their life from time to time. It is a very common way of releasing a
negative feeling arising towards a person or a situation, event, or thing. According to layperson anger
is a negative emotion but it is not so. It is a protective emotion that helps people defend themselves
from physical and psychological threats.
Triggers of Anger is any event that signals the brain to activate the body’s anger system. Once the
trigger is activated, the angry feelings begin automatically. These triggers of anger will vary from
person to person based on the individual life experiences. The triggers of anger are as follows-
Verbal trigger- the individual is subjected to abusive language causing him to feel disrespected or
devalued, criticized, scolded, insulted, deceived, or lied to. It also includes being labelled, shamed,
blamed by others.
Non- verbal trigger- these triggers are caused through gestures & facial expression. The individual
gets angry because he is disregarded, neglected, ignored, unappreciated & unloved. It also involves
giving a weird look. (frown & smirk)
Physical trigger- involve actions that cause physical harm or physical threats. A person would
angry if he feels that his personal space has been violated through physical assault, slapping,
kicking. Similarly sexual assault, rape, feeling out of control, inadequate & incompetent also trigger
anger.
EFFECTIVE ANGER MANAGEMENT (please define anger)
Anger is subjective, it can be controlled too. Anger can be a powerful ally. As one of the most
cathartic emotions, it can be an effective cleanser of the emotional system. However, when it
becomes a habit, it loses its power to transform and becomes an obstacle. So, an intervention
program called Anger Management is a must to avoid it becoming a habit.
Anger Management has been described as deploying anger successfully to your advantage rather
than creating chaos in your life. Controlling anger involves learning two things-
• Managing your own anger
• Learning how to respond effectively to the anger in others.
STRATEGIES OF ANGER MANAGEMENT
The 3 R’s: Relax, Reassess and Respond
1. Relaxation and Connection with the inner self: - aims at enhancing clear thinking, attention
& concentration so that anger does not lead to hasty conclusions or rash decisions. In other words,
the focus is on responding rather than reacting. Relaxation calms you down enables stable state &
gives recovery time to manage anger. It involves engaging in power booster activities like meditation,
listening to music, engaging in hobbies, social work etc.
Case- Seema was angry with her parents as they did not allow her to go for a late-night party. The 3
Rs of anger management can be applied as follows-
Relaxation- By relaxing her mind Seema can think clearly about the prevailing circumstances.
Engaging in power booster activities can help her put her body in calm state & gives her time to
recover & manage her anger.
2. Reassess- once the mind is relaxed one can revisit the situation objectively & figure out precisely
what is happening. It also helps to understand whether action needs to be taken & what measures
ought to be taken.
a. Take complete responsibility for your emotion here rather than blaming someone else for the
individual acknowledges & takes complete responsibility for the emotions and behaviour. One is not
accepting responsibility for the other person’s choices and feelings nor he admits that it is his fault.
One is merely paying attention and shifting the focus on his needs that were not satisfied in the
situation. E.g.- your friend lied to you so you feel disrespected hurt & disappointed now you are
aware so you will behave & respond accordingly.
b. Developing empathy this involves developing empathy for the person who has triggered
anger. This can help in reducing anger, as one understands that the opposite person is also
struggling with difficult emotions.
c. Using compassion each one is going through their own battle of emotions. Understanding that
they are also humans and can make mistakes empowers one to deal with their anger in a better
way. For example, one might choose to break friendship with the friend who lied. It is fine if one
cannot tolerate lying as a behaviour. It is crucial to set boundaries & specify clearly which
behaviour is acceptable or unacceptable.
d. Conduct a reality check- this means taking a 360° view of the situation and looking clearly at
what happened. One needs to step away from their initial judgments and gather more evidence
before setting upon a course of action or taking a decision. For example questions to ask oneself to
take a 360° would include how important is the other person to us, is anger justified, did the other
person lie due to some genuine reason etc
Case Study-
Reassess- When her mind will be relaxed, she will be able to revisit the situation objectively &
figure out exactly what is happening, how it is affecting her, whether an action needs to be taken &
if so, what action should it be. While reassessing the situation Seema takes responsibility for her
anger rather than blaming her mother for it & then she realizes that her parents were trying to
protect her from the dangers of being alone at night, this will develop feeling of empathy in her &
reduce her anger. By being empathetic & compassionate she understands her mother’s motive &
conducts a reality check by taking a 360-degree view of the situation.
3. Respond- It involves using anger as a motivation to change. This is the time when one can re-
engage with the opposite person to resolve the conflict.
1. Consult- the individual can consult a trusted family member, elder sibling or another friend on
their views or suggestions on this situation. It can be of help as one gets another perspective to
handle the situation.
2. Talk with the other person– This approach requires a lot of mindfulness. One needs to be
calm, polite, respectful, maintain good facial gestures show willingness for a meeting to talk about
the incident that caused the anger.
3. Active listening: - here the person gives other person a platform to express their point of view.
Being an active listener helps you communicate and resolve the problem more effectively.
4. Speak assertively: - one needs to stand up for his feelings and emotions while exhibiting the
same for the other person. This is precisely the right kind of approach and attitude to adopt as it
is a positive communication style, practical and derives meaningful and satisfactory results for
both.
5. Cage your Rage: - one should guard themselves against the escalating anger. This is because
anger causes a strong desire to hurt the other person. Instead of provoking the other person one
should work towards moderating anger & speak only when they are calm.
Case study-Respond- After careful evaluation of the situation, she spoke to her parents & resolved
the conflict. She also called up her friends & explained why she could not attend the party.