CHAP.

9] GROUPS 99

(c) The setA A = \{ - 3 . - 2 , - 1 .-1,0.1,2,3) is not a group with respect to

addition on Z although 0 is the identity element, each element of A has an
inverse, and addition is associative. The reason is, of [Link] addition is
not a binary operation on A, that is, the set 4 is not closed with respect to
addition.

(d) The seth e s e l A = \{ \omega _ { 1 } = - \frac { 1 } { 2 } + \frac { 1 }

{ 2 } \sqrt { 3 } i , \omega _ { 2 } = - \frac { 1 } { 2 } - \frac { 1 } { 2 } \sqrt
{ 3 } i , \omega _ { 3 } = 1 1 0of the cube roots of 1 forms a group with
respect to multiplication on the set of complex numbers C since (i) the
product of any two elements of the set is an element of the set,(ii) the
associative law holds in Cand. [Link] A. (iii) ws is the identity element, and
(iv) the inverses of w,(,ω3 are t,ω,ωs,respectively.

Table 9-1

w1,w2,w3,02, 3,w1,(2 ()3,w2,w3 때 w2w3,

This is also evident from (ii) and the above operation table.

(e) The set A= {1,-1,i, -i) with respect to multiplication on the set of complex
numbers forms a group. This set2 1 A = \{ 1 , -is closed under multiplication,
inherits the associative operation from C, contains the multiplicative identity
[Link] each element has an inverse in A.

See also Problems 9.1-9.2

9.2 SIMPLE PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

The uniqueness of the identity element and of the inverses of the elements
of a group were established in Theorems III and IV. Chapter 2. Section
[Link] follow readily

Theorem 1. (Cancellation Law) If a,b,[Link] n a o b = a o c , ( a l 5 0 , b o

a = c o a ) , i m \pi e s b = c .

For a proof, see Problem 9.3.

Theorem II. For .each of the equationsa o x = b a n d y o a = bhas a unique

solution.

For a proof, see Problem 9.4.

Theorem II1. For every a e 9, the inverse of the inverse of a is a,i.e. ( a ^ { -
1})^{-1}=a.

Theorem IV. For everya . b \in G . ( a o b ) ^ { - 1 } = b ^ { - 1 } \circ a ^ { -

1}.

Theorem V. For every a,b..... p _ { . } q \in G _ { s } ( a _ { 0 } b _ { 0 } \cdots

o p o q ) ^ { - 1 } = q ^ { - 1 } \circ p ^ { - 1 } o \cdots o b ^ { - 1 } o d ^
{-1}.

For any a e 9 and m e Z+, we define

m factors

a ^ { m } = a o a o a o \cdots o a t o n

a ^ { 0 } = u , tthe identity element of G

a ^ { - m } = ( a ^ { - 1 } ) ^ { m } = a ^ { - 1 } \circ a ^ { - 1 } \circ a ^
{ - 1 } 。 \cdots o a ^ { - 1 } to m factors

Once again the notation has been borrowed from that used when
multiplication is the [Link] the operation is addition, a" when
n> O is to be interpreted asn a = a + a + a + \cdots-+a to n terms,a° as u,
and a-" as nn ( - a ) = - a + ( - a ) + ( - a ) + \cdots + ( - a )to n terms. Note
that na is also shorthand and is not to be considered as the product of n e Z
and n \in Z a n d a \in G .

In Problem 9.5 we prove the first part of

Theorem VI. For anya \in G , ( i ) a ^ { m } \circ a ^ { n } = a ^ { m + n } \

arctan d ( i i ) ( a ^ { m } ) ^ { n } = a ^ { m n } .w h e r e m , n \in Z .

DEFINITION 9.2: By the order of a group G is meant the number of elements

in the set 9.

100 GROUPS [CHAP.9

The additive group Z of Example l(a) is of infinite order; the groups of

Example 1(b), 1(d), and 1(e)are finite groups of order 5, 3, and 4,
respectively.

DEFINITION 9.3: By the order of an element a E G is meant the least positive

integer n,if one exists,for whichh a ^ { n } = u ,the identity element of g.

DEFINITION 9.4: If a≠0is an element of the additive group Z, then na ≠0 for

al0 f o r a l l n > 0 a n d defined to be of infinite order.
The element w of Example 1(d) is of order 3 since ω and ωare different from
1 while an\omega _ { 1 } ^ { 3 } = 1 . t h e identity element. The element-1
of Example 1(e) is of order 2 since( - 1 ) ^ { 2 } = 1while the order of the
element i is 4 sincee i ^ { 2 } = - 1 , i ^ { 3 } = - i , \arctan d i ^ { 4 } = 1 .

9.3 SUBGROUPS

DEFINITION 9.5: L e t g = \{ a , b , c ...)be a group with respect to o. Any non-

empty subset G' of g is called a subgroup of gif g' is itself a group with
respect to o.

C l e a r l y C ^ { \prime } = \{ u \},where u is the identity element of G, and

G itself are subgroups of any group [Link] will be called improper subgroups;
other subgroups of G. if any, will be called proper. We note in passing that
every subgroup of G contains u as its identity element.

EXAMPLE 2.

(a) A proper subgroup of the multiplicative groupG = \{ 1 , - 1 , i , - i \} i s G

^ { \prime } = \{ 1 , - 1 \} .).(Are there others?)

(b) Consider the multiplicative groupH o u p G = \{ \rho _ { + } \rho ^ { 2 } _

{ - } \rho ^ { 3 } , \rho ^ { 4 } _ { + } \rho ^ { 5 } , \rho ^ { 6 } = 1 \} o f tf
the sixth roots of unity (see Problem [Link] 8).It hasG ^ { \prime } = \{
\rho ^ { 3 } , \rho ^ { 6 } \vert a n d L L g ^ { \prime \prime } = \{ \rho ^
{ 2 } , \rho ^ { 4 } , \rho ^ { 6 } \} a s pproper subgroups.

The next two theorems are useful in determining whether a subset of a group
9 with group operation o is a subgroup.

Theorem VII. A non-empty subset G' of a group 9 is a subgroup of G if and

only if (i)G'is closed with respect to o, (ii) G' contains the inverse of each of
its elements.

Theorem VIII. A non-empty subset g' of a group 9 is a subgroup of G if and

only if for all a,b e g'.a-lobEg-1. For a proof, see Problem 9.6.

There follow

Theorem IX. Let a be an element of a group [Link] setc t . g ^ { \prime } = \{

a ^ { n } : n \in Z \}:n E Z} of all integral powers of a is a subgroup of g.

Theorem X. If S is any set of subgroups of G, the intersection of these

subgroups is also a subgroup of g.

For a proof,see Problem 9.7.

9.4 CYCLIC GROUPS

DEFINITION 9.6: A group G is called cyclic if. for some a E [Link] x e G is of

the form a".where m e Z. The element a is then called a generator of G.

Clearly,every cyclic group is abelian.

EXAMPLE 3.

(a) The additive group Z is cyclic with generatorr a = 1a=1 since,for every m
E Z,a ^ { m } = m a = m .

(b) The multiplicative group of fifth roots of 1 is cyclic. Unlike the group of (a)
which has only 1 and -1 as generators, this group may be generated by any
of its elements except L.

CHAP.9] GROUPS 101

(c) The group g of Examle 2(b) is cyclic. Its generators are p and p5.

(d) The group Zg=(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) under congruence modulo 8 addition is

cyclic. This group may be generatedZ _ { 8 } = \{ 0 , 1 , 2 ,by 1,3,5,or 7.

Examples 3(b), 3(c),and 3(d) illustrate

Theorem XZ. Any element a' of a finite cyclic group 9 of order n is a

generator of G if and only if ( n , t ) = 1 .

In Problem 9.8, we prove

Theorem XII. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is itself a cyclic group.

9.5 PERMUTATION GROUPS

The set Sn of the nl permutations of n symbols was considered in Chapter 2.

A review of this material shows that Sn is a group with respect to the
permutations operations o. Since o is not commutative, this is our first
example of a non-abelian group.

It is customary to call the group Sn the symmetric group of n symbols and to

call any subgroup of Sn a permutation group on n symbols.

EXAMPLE 4.

(a)8 = ( 2 3 4 , 8 = ( 2 4 3 , 1 ) , 0 = ( 1 2 3 4 , p ^ { \prime } = ( 1 3 ) 1 2 4 ,
p ^ { \prime } = ( 1 4 2 2 ) , \sigma = ( 1 2 3 4 , \sigma ^ { 2 } = ( 1 4 ) ( 2
3 , 1 , 0 ) ^ { \prime } = ( 1 3 4 2 ) , r = ( 1 3 2 4 )\tau ^ { 2 } = ( 1 2 ) ( 3
4 ) , \tau ^ { 3 } = ( 1 4 2 3 ) .
(b) The subgroups of Sa: (i) ((1),(12)],(ii)((1),,2),(iii) {(1).(12).(34).(12)
(34)),and(i)) A _ { 4 } = \{ ( 1 ) . \alpha , \alpha ^ { 2 }B.,rare examples of
permutation groups of 4 symbols. (A4 consists of all even permutations in S4
and is known as the alternating group on 4 symbols.) Which of the above
subgroups are cyclic which abelian? List other subgroups of S4.

See Problems 9.9-9.10.

9.6 HOMOMORPHISMS

DEFINITION 9.7: Let G, with operation o. and G' with operation □, be two
groups. By a homomorphism of G into 9' is meant a mapping

\theta : 9 \rightarrow q ^ { \prime } a t \theta ( g ) = g ^ { \prime }

and

(i)every g e G has a unique imagee g ^ { \prime } \in g ^ { \prime }

(ii) i f \theta ( a ) = a ^ { \prime } a n d \theta ( b ) = b ^ { \prime } , \ln e n \

theta ( a \circ b ) = \theta ( a ) [ \varphi ( b ) = a ^ { \prime } \square b ^ { \
prime }

if,in addition, the mapping satisfies

(iii) every g' ' is an image

we have a homomorphism of G onto g'and we then call g' a homomorphic

image of G.

EXAMPLE 5.

(a) Consider the mapping n → i" of the additive group Z onto the
multiplicative group of the fourth roots of [Link] is a homomorphism since

m + n \rightarrow i ^ { m + n } = i ^ { m } \cdot i ^ { n }

and the group operations are preserved.

102 GROUPS [CHAP.9

(b) Consider the cyclic groupu p G = \{ a _ { r } a _ { r } a _ { , \cdots + a ^

{ 1 2 } } = u \} a n d i s s u o u p G ^ { \prime } = \{ a ^ { 2 } , a ^ { 4 } ,
a ^ { 6 } , \cdots , a ^ { 1 2 } \} ..It follows readily that the mapping

a ^ { n } \rightarrow a ^ { 2 n }

is a homomorphism of g onto g' while the mapping

a ^ { n } \rightarrow a ^ { n }

is a homomorphism of 9' into 9.

(c) The mapping x→x of the additive group R into itself is not a
homomorphism since x+y→( x + y ) ^ { 2 } \neq x ^ { 2 } + y ^ { 2 } .

In Problem 9.12 we prove See Problem 9.11.

Theorem XIII. In any homomorphism between two groups g and g', their
identity elements correspond; and if x e g and x'e 9' correspond,so also do
their inverses.

There follows

Theorem XIV. The homomorphic image of any cyclic group is eyclic.

9.7 ISOMORPHISMS

DEFINITION 9.8: If the mapping in Definition 9.6 is one to one,i.e,

g \leftrightarrow g ^ { \prime }

such that (iii) is satisfied,we say that G and g' are isomorphic and call the
mapping an isomorphism.

EXAMPLE 6. Show that g, the additive group Z1. is isomorphic to g', the
multiplicative group of the non-zero elements of Zs.

Consider the operation tables

Table 9-2

in which,for convenience, [0],[1]....have been replaced by 0.1..... It follows

readily that the mapping

G \rightarrow G ^ { \prime } : 0 \rightarrow 1 . 1 \rightarrow 3 . 2 \rightarrow

4 . 3 \rightarrow 2

is an [Link] example,1 = 2 + 3 \rightarrow 4 . 2 = 3 . e t c .

Rewrite the operation table for g' to show that

G \rightarrow G ^ { \prime } : 0 \rightarrow 1 . 1 \rightarrow 2 . 2 \rightarrow

4 . 3 \rightarrow 3

is another isomorphism of g onto g'.Can you find still another?

103
CHAP.9] GROUPS

In Problem 9.13 we prove the first part of

Theorem XV.

(a)Every cyclic group of infinite order is isomorphic to the additive group Z.

(b) Every cyclic group of finite order n is isomorphic to the additive group Zn.

The most remarkable result of this section is Theorem XVI (Cayley). Every
hnite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group on n

symbols.

Since the proof, given in Problem 9.14, consists in showing how to construct
an effective permutation group, the reader may wish to examine first

EXAMPLE 7.

Table 9-4

Consider the above operation table for the groupG = \{ g _ { 1 } , g _ { 2 } ,

g _ { 3 } , g _ { 4 } , g _ { 5 } , g _ { 6 } \} w i twith group operation □.

The elements of any column of the table,say the fifth:giDg _ { 1 } \square g _

{ 5 } = g _ { 5 } , g _ { 2 } \square g _ { 5 } = g _ { 3 } , g _ { 3 } \square g
_ { 5 } = g _ { 4 } , g _ { 4 } \square g _ { 5 } = g _ { 2 } .g 5 \square g 5 =
g 6 . 8 6 \square g _ { 5 } = g _ { 1 } \argre the elements of the row labels
(i.e., the elements ofg) [Link] permutation will be indicated by

( \begin{matrix} g _ { 1 } & g _ { 2 } & g _ { 3 } & g _ { 4 } & g _ { 5 } & g _

{ 3 } & g _ { 2 } & g _ { 6 } & g _ { 1 } ) = ( 1 5 6 ) ( 2 3 4 ) \\ g _ { 5 } & g _
{ 3 } & g _ { 2 } & g _ { 6 } & g _ { 1 } \end{matrix}

=p_{5}

It follows readily G is isomorphicto P = \{ p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , p _ { 3 } , p _

{ 4 } , p _ { 5 } , p _ { 6 } \} w h e r ep _ { 1 } = ( 1 ) . p _ { 2 } = ( 1 2 ) ( 3
6 ) ( 4 5 ) .p _ { 3 } = ( 1 3 ) ( 2 5 ) ( 4 6 ) . p _ { 4 } = ( 1 4 ) ( 2 6 ) ( 3 5 ) . p
_ { 5 } = ( 1 5 6 ) ( 2 3 4 ) , p _ { 6 } = ( 1 6 5 ) ( 2 4 3 ) m3) under the
mapping

g i \leftrightarrow P i ( i = 1 , 2 , 3 , \cdots , 6 )

9.8 COSETS
DEFINITION 9.9: Let C be a finite group with group operation o. H be a
subgroup of G. and a be an arbitrary element of G. We define as the right
coset Ha of H in9,generated by a, the subset of G

H a = \{ h \circ a : h \in H \}

and as the left coset aH of H in G, generated by a, the subset of g

a H = \{ a o h : h \in H \}

EXAMPLE 8. The subgroupH = \{ ( 1 ) , ( 1 2 ) , ( 3 4 ) . ( 1 2 ) ( 3 4 ) \}4)) and

the elementn t a = ( 1 4 3 2 ) o f S _ { 4 }4 generate the right coset

H a = \{ ( 1 ) \circ ( 1 4 3 2 ) , ( 1 2 ) 。 ( 1 4 3 2 ) , ( 3 4 ) \circ ( 1 4 3 2 ) . ( 1
2 ) ( 3 4 ) 。(34)o(1432)]

= \{ ( 1 4 3 2 ) , ( 1 4 3 ) , ( 1 3 2 ) , ( 1 3 ) \}

104 GROUPS [CHAP.9

and the left coset

a H = \{ ( 1 4 3 2 ) \circ ( 1 ) . ( 1 4 3432)o(1).(1432)o(12).(1432)o(1 4 3 2 ) \
circ ( 3 4 ) . ( 1 4 3 2 )(1432)o(12)(34)]

= [ ( 1 4 3 2 ) , ( 2 4 3 ) .= ((1432),(243).(142).(24)

In investigating the properties of cosets, we shall usually limit our attention

to right cosets and leave for the reader the formulation of the corresponding
properties of left [Link], note that a E Ha since u, the identity element
of g, is also the identity element of H. If H contains m elements, so also does
[Link] Ha contains at most m elements and h1 o a = h2 o a for any h1.h2 € H
implies hs h _ { 1 } = h _ { 2 } . F \in denotes the st of all distinet right
cosets of H in 9, then H e C, since Ha when a E H.

Consider now two right cosets Ha and Hb, a ≠b, of H in G. Suppose that c is a
common element of these cosets so that for some h1,h2e H we havec = h _
{ 1 } \circ a = h _ { 2 } \circ b .. T h e n a = h _ { 1 } ^ { - 1 } o ( h _ { 2 } \
circ b ) =(h1-oh2)ob and, since h1-' o h2 € H (Theorem VIII), it follows that a
e Hb and HaH a = H b .Hb. Thus,C,consists of mutually disjoint right cosets of
g and so is a partition of G. We shall call C, a decomposition of g into right
cosets with respect to H.

EXAMPLE 9.

(a) Take G as the additive group of integers and H as the subgroup of all
integers divisible by [Link] decomposition of g into right cosets with respect
to H consists of five residue classes modulo 5,i.e.,i . e , H = \{ x : 5 \vert
x \}H I = \{ x : 5 \vert ( x - 1 ) \} , H 2 = \{ x : 5 \vert ( x - 2 ) \} , H 3 = \{ x :
5:5|(x-3)],and /H 4 = \{ x : 5 \vert ( x - 4:5|(x-4)). There is no distinc-tion here
between right and left cosets since G is an abelian group.

(b) L e t G = S _ { 4 } a n d H = A _ { 4 } ,,the subgroup of all even

permutations of S4. Then there are only two right(left)cosets of g generated
by H, namely, A4 and the subset of odd permutations of [Link] again there
is no distinction between right and left cosets but note that S4 is not abelian.

(c) L e t G = S _ { 4 }and H be the octic group of Problem [Link] distinct left

cosets generated by H are

H = \{ ( 1 ) , ( 1 2 3 4 )234).(13)(24),(1432).(12)(34),(14)(23),(13),(24)}

H ( 1 2 ) = \{ ( 1 2 ) , ( 1 3 4 ) . ( 1 4 2 3 ) . (1423).(243),(34).(1324),(123),
(142))

H ( 2 3 ) = \{ ( 2 3 ) , ( 1 2 4 ) . ( 1 3 4 2 ) , ( 1 4 3 ) ,1342),(143), (1243),(14).
(132).(234)]

T h u s , G = H U H ( 1 2 ) \cup H ( 2 3 ) = H U (U(12)H U(23)H. Here, the

decomposition of G obtained by using the right and left cosets of H are
distinct.

Let g be a linite group of order n and H be a subgroup of order m of 9. The

number of distinct right cosets of H in g (called the index of H in 9) is r where
n =mr; hence,

Theorem XVII(Lagrange). The order of each subgroup of a finite group g is a

divisor of the order of G.

As consequences,we have

Theorem XVIII. If G is a finite group of order n, then the order of any element
a e g (i.e.,the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by a) is a divisor if n;

and

Theorem XIX. Every group of prime order is eyclic.

CHAP.9] GROUPS 105

9.9 INVARIANT SUBGROUPS

DEFINITION 9.10: A subgroup H of a group g is called an invariant subgroup

(normal subgroup or normal divisor) ofG i f g H = H g f og for every g e g.
Since g-1 e G whenever g e 9. we may write

(i') g ^ { - 1 } H g = H f o r x y g \in g

Now (i') requires

(i)for any g eg and any h e H,then g-lohog E H

and

() for any g e G and each h e H, there exists some k e H such thatg ^ { - 1 } \

circ k \circ g = h o r k o g = g o h .

We shall show that (i)implies (i).Consider any h B y ( i _ { 1 } ^ { \prime } ) .

( g ^ { - 1 } ) ^ { - 1 } o h o g ^ { - 1 } = g o h o g ^ { - 1 } =k e H since g-
lE9;then g- okog: h as required.g ^ { - 1 } \circ k \circ g = h

We have proved

Theorem XX. If H is a subgroup of a group 9 and ii f g ^ { - 1 } 。 \circ g \in H f

o r a l l g \in G a r d a M h \in H .is an invariant subgroup of g.

EXAMPLE 10.

(a) Every subgroup of H of an abelian group G is an invariant subgroup of G

since go h = h o g ,,for any g eand every h e H.

(b) Every group G has at least two invariant subgroups (u). since ua o g = g \
circ uu for every ge9,and G itself,since for any g.h E we have

g o h = g o h o ( g ^ { - 1 } o g ) = ( g \circ h o g ^ { - 1 } ) \circ g = k o g a
n d k = g o h o g ^ { - 1 } \epsilon g

(c) If H is a subgroup of index 2 of g [see Example 9(b)] the cosets generated

by H consist of H and [Link],H is an invariant subgroup of G.

(d) F o r G = \{ a , a ^ { 2 } , a ^ { 3 } , \cdots , a ^ { 1 2 } = u \} .,its

subgroups {\{ u , a ^ { 2 } , a ^ { 4 } , \cdots a ^ { 1 0 } 1 , },and
(u,d)are invariant.

(e) For the oetic group (Problem 9.9). (u. ,b,el and ([Link])are invariant
subgroups of order 4 while {u.p2) is an invariant subgroup of order 2.(Use
Table 9-7 to check this.)

(f) The octic group P is not an invariant subgroup of Sa since forr \rho = ( 1 2
3 4 ) \epsilon P a n d ( 1 2 ) \epsilon S 4( 1 2 ) ^ { - 1 } \rho ( 1 2 ) = ( 1 3 4 2
) \notin P nd (12)e S4. we have
In Problem 9.15, we prove

Theorem XXI. Under any homomorphism of a group 9 with group operation o

and identity element u into a group 9' with group operation [and identity
element u', the subset S of all elements of G which are mapped onto u' is an
invariant subgroup of g.

The invariant subgroup of g defined in Theorem XXI is called the kernal of the
homomorphism.

EXAMPLE 11. Let g be the additive group Z and g' the additive group Zs. The
homomorphism x→remainder when x is divided by 5 has as its kernal1 H = \{
x : 5 \vert x \vert = 5 Z .

In Example 10(b) it was shown that any group 9 has {u)and G itself as
invariant subgroups. They are called improper while other invariant
subgroups, if any, of g are called proper. A group C having no proper
invariant subgroups is called simple.

EXAMPLE 12. The additive group Zs is a simple group since by the Lagrange
Theorem, the only subgroups of Zs will be of order 1 or order 5.

9.10 Q00HENT GROUPS

DEFINITION 9.11: Let H be an invariant subgroup of a group 9 with group

operation o and denote by 9/H the set of (distinct) cosets of H in 9,i.e.,

L i C l _ { 2 } = \{ H a _ { 2 } , H b , H c , \cdots \}

We define the “product" of pairs of these cosets by

( H a ) ( H b ) = \{ ( h _ { 1 } , c a ) \circ ( h _ { 2 } , b ) : h _ { 1 } , h _ { 2 } \
in H \} 6 0 r a l H a , H b \in G / H .

In Problem 9.16, we prove that this operation is well defined.

Now G/H is a group with respect to the operation just defined. To prove this,
we note first that

( h _ { 1 } \circ a ) \circ ( h _ { 2 } \circ b ) = h _ { 1 } \circ ( a o h _ { 2 } ) \

circ b = h _ { 1 } \circ ( h _ { 3 } \circ a ) \circ b

= ( h _ { 1 } \circ h _ { 3 } ) \circ ( a \circ b ) = h _ { 4 } \circ ( a \circ b ) , h _

{ 3 } , h _ { 4 } \in H

Then ( H a ) ( H b ) = H ( a \circ b ) \epsilon L H

and [ ( H a ) ( H b ) ] ( H c ) = H [ ( a \circ b ) \circ c ] = H [ a o ( b o c ) ] = (
Hai[Hb)(Hc)]

Next,for u the identity element of g.( H u ) ( H a ) = ( H a ) ( H u ) = H a s o t

h a t H u = H i s t hthe identity element of G/H. Finally,since (H( H a ) ( H a ^
{ - 1 } ) = ( H a ^ { - 1 } ) ( H a ) = H u = H .it follows that 9/H contains the
inverse H a ^ { - 1 } oof each Ha E g/H.

The group 9/H is called the quotient group (factor group) of g by H.

EXAMPLE 13.

(a) When g is the octic group of Problem 9.9 anda n d H = \{ u , \rho ^ { 2 } ,

b , e \} , t h e n G / H = \{ H , H \rho \} .). This representation of g/H is,of
course,not unique. The reader will show thatL H = \{ H , H \rho ^ { 3 } \} = \
{ H , H \sigma ^ { 2 } \} = \{ H , H r ^ { 2 } \} = \{ H , H \rho \} .

(b) For the same 9 ag a n d H = ( u , \rho ^ { 2 } ) .we have

G / H = \{ H , H \rho _ { x } H \sigma ^ { 2 } , H b \} = \{ H , H \rho ^ { 3 } ,

H t ^ { 2 } , H e \}

The examples above illustrate

Theorem XXII. IfH,of order m, is an invariant subgroup of G, of order n, then

the quotient group 9/H is of order n/m.

r o m ( H a ) ( H b ) = H ( a \circ b ) \epsilon G / H, obtained above, there

follows

Theorem XXIII. If H is an invariant subgroup of a group 9,the mapping

9 \rightarrow G / H : g \rightarrow H g

is a homomorphism of G onto g/H.

In Problem 9.17, we prove

Theorem XXIV. Any quotient group of a cyclic group is cyclic.

We leave as an exercise the proof of

CHAP.9] GROUPS 107

Theorem XXV. If H is an invariant subgroup of a group g and if H is also a

subgroup of a subgroup K of G, then H is an invariant subgroup of K.

9.11 PRODUCT OF SUBGROUPS

L e t H = \{ h _ { 1 } , h _ { 2 } , \cdots , h _ { r } \} a n d K = \{ b _ { 1 } , b
_ { 2 } , \cdots , b _ { p } \}be subgroups of a group 9 and define the
"product"

H K = \{ h _ { 1 } \circ b _ { j } : h _ { 1 } \in H , b _ { j } \in K \}

In Problems 9.65-9.67,the reader is asked to examine such products and, in

particular,to prove Theorem XXVI. If H and K are invariant subgroups of a
group 9, so also is HK.

9.12 COMPOSITION SERIES

DEFINITION 9.12: An invariant subgroup H of a groupg is called maximal

provided there exists no proper invariant subgroup K of G having H as a
proper subgroup.

EXAMPLE 14.

(a) A4 of Example 4(b) is a maximal invariant subgroup of S4 since it is a

subgroup of index 2 in S4. Also.(u,p2,o2,r) is a maximal invariant subgroup of
A4.(Show this.)

(b) The cyclic group 9=p q = \{ u , a , a ^ { 2 } , \cdots a ^ { 1 1 } \vert h a

s H = \{ u , a ^ { 2 } , a ^ { 4 } , , a ^ { 1 0 } \vert a n d K = \{ u , a ^ { 3 }
, a ^ { 6 } . a ^ { 9 } \})as maximal invariant subgroups. Also, J =
{u.a*,d°)is a maximal invariant subgroup of H whilee L = \{ u , a ^ { b } \}is
a maximal invariant s o , J = \{ u , a ^ { 4 } , a ^ { 8 } \}subgroup of both H
and K.

rno13. 1ur any gloup 9 a sequchcc on nis sungloups

G _ { n } H , J , K , \cdots , U = \vert \omega \vert

will be called a composition series for G if each element except the first is a
maximal invariant subgroup of its [Link] groups 9/H,H/J,J/K....are
then called quotient groups of the composition [Link] Problem 9.18 we
prove

Theorem XXVII. Every finite group has at least one composition series.

EXAMPLE 15.

(a) The cyclic group, G = \{ u , a , a ^ { 2 } , a ^ { 3 } , a ^ { 4 } \}has only

one composition seris:: 9 . U = \vert u \vert .

(b) A composition seriesf o r g = S _ { 4 } i s

S _ { 4 , } A _ { 4 , } , \{ ( 1 ) , p ^ { 2 } , \sigma ^ { 2 } , r ^ { 2 } \} , \{ ( 1
) , \rho ^ { 2 } \} , U = \{ ( 1 ) \}

Is every element of the composition series an invariant subgroup of g?

(c) For the cyclic group of Example 14(b),there are three composition series:
(i) 9,H.J,U,(ii) 9.K,L,[Link] (iii)9.H,L,U. Is every element of each composition
series an invariant subgroup of g?

In Problem 9.19, we illustrate

Theorem XXVIII(The Jordan-Hölder Theorem). For any finite group with

distinct composition series,all series are the same length, i.e., have the same
number of elements. Moreover, the quotient groups for any pair of
composition series may be put into one-to-one correspondence so that
corresponding quotient groups are isomorphic.

108 GROUPS [CHAP.9

Before attempting a proof of Theorem XXVIII (see Problem 9.23) it will be

necessary to examine certain relations which exist between the subgroups of
a group g and the subgroups of its quotient [Link] then H, of order r, be
an invariant subgroup of a group 9 of order n and write

S = L H = \{ H a _ { 1 } , H a _ { 2 } , H a _ { 3 } , \cdots , H a _ { s } \} , a _
{ i } \in g (1)

where,for convenience, a _ { 1 } = u .Further,let

P = \{ H b _ { 1 } , H b _ { 2 } , H b _ { 3 } , \cdots , H b _ { p } \} (2)

be any subset of S and denote by

K = \{ H b _ { 1 } \cup H b _ { 2 } \cup H b _ { 3 } \cup \cdots H b _ { p } \}

(3)

the subset of G whose elements are the pr distinct elements (of G) which
belong to the cosets of P.

Suppose now that P is a subgroup of index / of S. Then prt and some one of
the b's, say bi, is the identity element u of G. It follows that K is a subgroup
of index t of g andd P = K / H since

(i) P is closed with respect to coset multiplication; hence, K is closed with

respect to the group operation on G.

(ii) The associative law holds for 9 and thus for K.

(iii) H E P:hence,u e K.

(iv) P contains the inverse HbH b _ { i } ^ { - 1 } o tof each coset Hb,e P;

hence, K contains the inverse of each of its elements.

(v) K is of order pr; hence, K is of index /in g.

Conversely, suppose K is a subgroup of index t of G which contains H, an

invariant subgroup of G. Then, by Theorem XXV. H is an invariant subgroup of
K and so P = K / H/H is of index t in S = G / H .

We have proved

Theorem XXIX. Let H be an invariant subgroup of a finite group 9.A set P of

the cosets of S = 9/H is a subgroup ofindex t of S if and only if K, the set of
group elements which belong to the cosets in P, is a subgroup of index t of g.

We now assumeb _ { 1 } = u \in ( 2 ) a n)and (3) above and state

Theorem XXX. Let g be a group of order rpt. K be a subgroup of order rp of G,

and H be an invariant subgroup of order r of both K and G. Then K is an
invariant subgroup of G if and only if P = K / His an invariant subgroup oo f S
=G/H.

For a proof. see Problem 9.20.

Theorem XXXI. Let H and K be invariant subgroups of G with H an invariant

subgroup of K, and let P = K / H a n d S = L / HH. Then the quotient groups
S/P and 9/K are isomorphic.

For a proof, see Problem 9.21.

Theorem XXXII. If H is a maximal invariant subgroup of a group g then G/H is

simple, and vice versa.

Theorem XXXIII. Let H and K be distinct maximal invariant subgroups of a

group 9. Then

(a) D = H \cap KK is an invariant subgroup of G,and

(b) H/D is isomorphic to G/K and K/D is isomorphic to g/[Link] a [Link]

Problem 9.22.

Solved Problems

9.1. Does Z3. the set of residue classes modulo 3,form a group with respect
to addition? with respect to multiplication?
From the addition and multiplication tables for Z, in which [0].[1].[2] have
been replaced by 0.1.2

Table 9-5

+01 2

Table 9-6

0,0,

it is clear that Z, forms a group with respect to addition. The identity element
is 0 and the inverses of 0.1.2are, respectively, 0.2, 1. It is equally clear that
while these residue classes do not form a group with respect to
multiplication,the non-zero residue classes do. Here the identity element is 1
and each of the elements 1,2 is its own inverse.

9.2. Do the non-zero residue classes modulo 4 form a group with respect to
multiplication?

From Table 5-2 of Example 12, Chapter 5. it is clear that these residue
classes do not form a group with respect to multiplication.

9.3. Prove:If a,b, b , c \in G , \ln c n a o b = a o c ( a l 5 0 , b o a = c o a ) \in \

pi n p i e s b = c .

Considera \circ b = a \circ c . Operating on the left witha ^ { - 1 } \in q . a v

e a ^ { - 1 } \circ ( a \circ b ) = a ^ { - 1 } \circ ( a \circ c ) . UUsing the
associative laH W , ( a ^ { - 1 } \circ a ) \circ b = ( a ^ { - 1 } \circ a ) 。oc:
hence. u o b = u o c a n d s o b = c . Similarly,(b( b \circ a ) \circ a ^ { - 1 }
=(coa)o a-l reduces too b = c .

9.4. Prove: When ,each of the equationsa \circ x = b a n d y \circ a = bhas a

unique solution.

We obtain readi\div A l y \cdot = a ^ { - 1 } o b a n d y = b o a ^ { - 1 } a s

5solutions. To prove uniqueness, assumex ^ { \prime } a n d y ^ { \prime } t
o b second set of [Link] o x = a o x ^ { \prime } a n d y o a = y ^ {
\prime } \circ awhence,by Theorem 1.1 . x = x ^ { \prime } a n d y = y ^ { \
prime } .

9.5. Prove: For anya \in G _ { z } a ^ { m } \circ a ^ { n } = a ^ { m \div n }

m , n \in Z .
We consider in turn all cases resulting when each of m and n are positive,
zero, or negative. When m and n are positive,

a ^ { m } \circ a ^ { n } = \frac { m f a c t o r s } { ( a o a o \cdots \cdot o a

t ) } o \frac { n f a c t o r s } { ( a o a o \cdots \cdot o a ) } = \frac { m + n }
{ a o a o } \frac { a c t o r s } { \cdots \cdot o a } = a ^ { m + n }

W h e n m = - r a n d n = s ,where r and s are positive integers.

= \{ \begin{matrix} a ^ { s - r } = a ^ { m + n } \\ ( a ^ { - 1 } ) ^ { \prime
- s } = a ^ { s - r } = a ^ { m + n } \end{matrix}a ^ { m } \circ a ^ { n } =
a ^ { - r } \circ a ^ { i } = ( a ^ { - 1 } ) ^ { r } \circ a ^ { s } = ( a ^ { - 1 }
o a ^ { - 1 } o \cdots o a ^ { - 1 } ) \circ ( a \circ a o \cdots o a )

whens<r

The remaining cases are left for the reader.

9.6. Prove: A non-empty subset g' of a group 9 is a subgroup of G if and only

if, for all a,b e g'.a-lobeg'.

Suppose 9' is a subgroup of [Link] a. ',then a-1E g'and. by the Closure Law, so
also does a-lo b.

110

GROUPS [CHAP.9

Conversely, suppose 9' is a non-empty subset of g for which a-'obe g'

whenever a,beg'.Now a-a ^ { - 1 } \circ a = u \in C ^ { \prime } . n u o a ^ {
- 1 } = a ^ { - 1 } \epsilonG'and every element of g' has an inverse in g'.
[Link] every a,bega , b \in G ^ { \prime } , ( a ^ { - 1 } ) ^ { - 1 } \circ b
= a \circ b \in Gbeg',and the Closure Law holds. Thus, G' is a group and,
hence.a subgroup of G.

9.7. Prove: If S is any set of subgroups of a group 9, the intersection of these

subgroups is also a subgroup of G.

Let a and b be elements of the intersection and, hence, elements of each of

the subgroups which make up S. By Theorem VIII.a-o b belongs to each
subgroup and, hence, to the intersection. Thus, the intersection is a
subgroup of G.

9.8. Prove: Every subgroup of a cyelic group is itself a cyclic group.

Let G' be a subgroup of a cyclic group G whose generator is a. Suppose that
m is the least positive integer such that am e g'. Now every element of G',
being an element of [Link] of the form d. k [Link]

k = m g + r , 0 \leq r < m

we have a ^ { k } = a ^ { n x y + r } = ( a ^ { m } ) ^ { q } \circ d ^ {
r}

and,hence, a ^ { r } = ( a ^ { m } ) ^ { - 4 } \circ a ^ { k }

Since both a" and a* e 9', it follows that d' e 9'. But sincc e r < m , r = 0 . h u
s k = m q . e vevery element of g' is of the form (a"4. and G is the cyclic
group generated by g'.

9.9. The subset {u: 1 \{ u = ( 1 ) , \rho , \rho ^ { 2 } , \rho ^ { 3 } , \sigma ^

{ 2 } , \tau ^ { 2 } , b = ( 1 3 ) , e = ( 2 4 ) \} o r S 44 is a group (see the
operation table below), called the octic group of a square or the dihedral
group. We shall now show how this permutation group may be obtained
using properties of symmetry of a square.

Consider the square (Fig. 9-1) with vertices denoted by 1,2,3, 4; locate its
center O,the bisectors AOB and COD of its parallel sides, and the diagonals
103 and 204. We shall be concerned with all rigid motions (rotations in the
plane about O and in space about the bisectors and diagonals) such that the
square will look the same after the motion as before.

Denote by p the counterclockwise rotation of the square about O through

90°. Its effect is to carry I into 2, 2 into 3.3 into [Link] 4 into 1;thus, 1234).
Noww \rho ^ { 2 } = \rho \circ \rho = ( 1 3 ) ( 213)(24) is arotation about O of
180°.\rho ^ { 3 } = ( 1 4 3 2 )= (1432)is a rotation of 270°.and\rho ^ { 4 } =
( 1 ) = u i s as a rotation about O of 360° or 0°. The rotations through

CHAP.9] GROUPS 111

180° about the bisectors AOB and COD give rise respectively too \sigma ^
{ 2 } = ( 1 4 ) ( 2 3 ) a n d r ^ { 2 } = ( 1 2 ) ( 3 434)while the rotations
through 180° about the diagonals 103and 204 give rise too c = ( 2 4 ) a n d b
=(13).

The operation table for this group is

Table 9-7

In forming the table

(1) fill in the first row and first column and complete the upper 4 x 4 block.

(2) complete the second row.

( p \circ \sigma ^ { 2 } = ( 1 2 3 4 ) \circ ( 1 4 ) ( 2 3 ) = ( 2 4 ) = e , \cdots )

and then the third and fourth rows,

( p ^ { 2 } \circ \sigma ^ { 2 } = \rho o ( \rho \circ \sigma ^ { 2 } ) = \rho \

circ e = \tau ^ { 2 } , \cdots )

(3) complete the second column and then the third and fourth columns.

( a ^ { 2 } \circ \rho ^ { 2 } = ( a ^ { 2 } \circ \rho ) \circ \rho = b \circ \rho

= r ^ { 2 } , \cdots )

(4)complete the table,

( \sigma ^ { 2 } \circ \overline { t } ^ { 2 } = \sigma ^ { 2 } o ( \sigma ^

{ 2 } \circ \rho ^ { 2 } ) = \rho ^ { 2 } , \cdots )

9.10. A permutation group on n symbols is called regular if each of its

elements except the identity moves all n symbols. Find the regular
permutation groups on four symbols.

Using Example 4. te required groups are

\{ \rho , \rho ^ { 2 } , \rho ^ { 3 } , \rho ^ { 4 } = ( 1 ) \} , ( \sigma , \sigma

^ { 2 } , \sigma ^ { 3 } , \sigma ^ { 4 } = ( 1 ) \} , a m d ( r , r ^ { 2 } , r ^
{ 3 } , r ^ { 4 } = ( 1 ) \}

9.11. Prove: The mappingZ \rightarrow Z _ { n } : m \rightarrow [ m ]is a

homomorphism of the additive group Z onto the additive group Zn of
integers modulo n.

Since [ne [ m ] = [ r ] w v e r m = n g + r . 0 \leq r < n . iit is evident that the

mapping is not one to [Link] m e Z has a unique image in the
set {[0].[1],[2].....[n-1]] of residue classes modulo n,and every element of
this latter set is an image. Also, if a → [r]andd b \rightarrow [ s ] , t h e n a +
b \rightarrow [ r ] + [ s ] = [ t ]the residue class modulo n off c = a +
b .[Link],the group operations are preserved and the mapping is a
homomorphism of Z onto Znz 9.12. Prove: In a homomorphism between two
groups G and g',their identity elements correspond, and if xe g and x'e g'
correspond so also do their inverses.

Denote the identity elements of G and g' by u and u', [Link]

now that u- and,for n x = u o x \rightarrow v ^ { \prime } \square x ^ { \
prime } = x ^ { \prime } = u ^ { \prime } [□x' whence. by the Cancellation
Law.v ^ { \prime } = u ^ { \prime } a tand we have the first part of the
theorem.

or the second part, supposex \rightarrow x ^ { \prime } \tan d x ^ { - 1 } \

rightarrow y ^ { \prime } , T h e n u = x o x ^ { - 1 } \rightarrow x ^ { \
prime } [ y ^ { \prime } = u ^ { \prime } = x ^ { \prime } [ ( x ^ { \
prime } ) ^ { - 1 } s athat y ^ { \prime } = ( x ^ { \prime } ) ^ { - 1 } .

9.13. Prove:Every cyclic group of infinite order is isomorphic to the additive

group Z.

Consider the infinite cyclic group 9 generated by a and the mapping

n \rightarrow a ^ { n } .

of Zinto g. Now this mapping is clearly onto; moreover, it is one to one since,
iffor s >t we had sa"and t \leftrightarrow a ^ { l } \sin a ^ { 3 } = a ^ { 2 } ,
t h e n a ^ { x - t } = u a n d Gwould be [Link].s + t \leftrightarrow a ^
{ s + t } = a ^ { x } \cdot a ^ { t }and the mapping is an isomorphism.

9.14. Prove: Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation

group on n symbols.

L e t G = \{ g t \cdot g x \cdot \cdots \cdot g _ { n } \})with group operation

□and define

p_{j}=(_{gi}E_{i})=(_{gi}[g_{1}&g_{2}&g_{2}
& g _ { 3 } \cdots & g _ { n } \\ g _ { 1 } \square g _ { 1 } & g _ { 2 } \square
g _ { j } & g _ { 3 } \square g _ { j } \cdots & g _ { n }

( j = 1 , 2 , 3 , \cdots , n )

The elements in the second row of pj are those in the column of the
operation table of g labeled gj and,hence,are a permutation of the elements
of the row labels. Tus.P = \{ p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , p _ { 3 } .....,pn}is a subset
of the elements of the symmetric group Sn on n symbols. It is left for the
reader to show that P satisfies the conditions of Theorem VII for a group. Now
consider the one-to-one correspondence

(a) g i \leftrightarrow P i . i = 1 , 2 , 3 , \cdots , n

H g _ { t } = g _ { r } \square g _ { x } , \ln e n g _ { t } \leftrightarrow p _ { r

} \circ p _ { s } \leq 0so that
g _ { i } \rightarrow ( g _ { i } \square g _ { r } ) \circ ( g _ { i } \square _ { S _
{ 1 } } g _ { s _ { 1 } } ) = ( g _ { i } \square _ { B _ { r } } ) \circ ( g _ { i } \
square g _ { r } } ) = ( g _ { i } \square g _ { i } )

and (a) is an isomorphism of G onto P. Note that P is regular.

9.15. Prove: Under any homomorphism of a group 9 with group operation o

and identity element u into a group g' with group operation and identity
element u', the subset S of all elements of g which are mapped onto u' is an
invariant subgroup of G.

As consequences of Theorem XIII, we have

(a) →u';hence,S is non-empty.

(b)ifi f a \in S _ { x } \ln e n a ^ { - 1 } \rightarrow ( u ^ { \prime } ) ^ { - 1 }

= u ^ { \prime } _ { x } \ln e n c e , a ^ { - 1 } \in S .

(c) ifbe [Link] ^ { - 1 } \circ b \rightarrow u ^ { \prime } \square u ^ { \

prime } = u ^ { \prime } ; h e t c e , a ^ { - 1 } \circ b \in S .

Thus, S is a subgroup of G.

CHAP.9] GROUPS 113

For arbitrary a E S and g

g ^ { - 1 } \circ a o g \rightarrow ( g ^ { \prime } ) ^ { - 1 } \square u ^ { \

prime } \square g ^ { \prime } = u ^ { \prime }

so that g-' o aoge S. Then by Theorem XX, S is an invariant subgroup of G as

required.

9.16. Prove:The product of cosets

( H a ) ( H b ) = \{ ( h _ { 1 } o a ) \circ ( h _ { 2 } \circ b ) : h _ { 1 } , h _
{ 2 } \in H \} \int O r a l H a , H b \in L I H

where H is an invariant subgroup of 9, is well defined.

First, we show: For any x,x'. x ^ { \prime } \in G , H x ^ { \prime } = H x i f a

n d o n l y i f x ^ { \prime } = v o x f o r s o m e v \in H . S u p \oint o s e H x
^ { \prime } = H x .Thene n x ^ { \prime } \in H x r e q u i r e s x ^ { \
prime } = v o x for some ve H. Conversely, if x ^ { \prime } = v o xwith ve
H, then H x ^ { \prime } = H ( v o x ) = ( H v ) x = H x .

Now let Ha' and Hb'be other representations of Ha and Hb,respectively,vw i t

h d ^ { \prime } = a o r , b ^ { \prime } = b o s , a n d r _ { + } s \in H .\ln
( H a ^ { \prime } ) ( H b ^ { \prime } ) = [ [ h _ { 1 } \circ ( a
。or)]o[h2o(bos)]:h1,h2€ H} we have, using((i),Section 9.9.

[ h t o ( a o r ) ] o [ h t 2 o ( b o s ) ] = ( h 1 o a ) o ( r o h 2 ) o ( h o s )= ( h _
{ 1 } \circ a ) \circ h _ { 3 } \circ ( t \circ b ) = ( h _ { 1 } \circ a ) \circ ( h _ { 3
} \circ t ) \circ b

= ( h _ { 1 } \circ a ) \circ ( h _ { 4 } \circ b ) w h e r e h _ { 3 } , t , h _ { 4 } \

in H

Then ( H a ^ { \prime } ) ( H b ^ { \prime } ) = ( H a ) ( H b )

and the product(Ha)(Hb) is well defined.

9.17. Prove: Any quotient group of a cyclic group 9 is cyclic.

Let H be any (invariant)subgroup of the cyclie group9 = \{ u , a , a ^ { 2 } , \

cdots , d ^ { f } \} :)and consider the homomorphism

G \rightarrow G / H : a ^ { l } \rightarrow H a ^ { l }

Since every element of G/H has the form Ha' for some a' e g andH a ^ { i } =
( H a ) ^ { i }(prove this) it follows that every element of G/H is a power of
b=Ha. Hence.G/H is cyclic.

9.18. Prove:Every finite group 9 has at least one composition series.

(i) Suppose G is simple; then 9.U is a composition series.

(ii) Suppose G is not simple; then there exists an invariant subgroup H ≠9,L/
of G. If H is maximal in g and U is maximal in H. then g, H. U is a composition
series. Suppose H is not maximal in g but U is maximal in H;then there exists
an invariant subgroup K of g such that H is an invariant subgroup of K. If K is
maximal in G and H is maximal in K, then 9.K,H.U is a composition series.
Now suppose H is maximal in 9 but U is not maximal in H; then there exists
an invariant subgroup J of [Link] / is maximal in H and U is maximal in J. then g,
H.J,U is a composition series. Next,suppose that H is not maximal in Gand U
is not maximal in H: then.... Since g is finite, there are only a finite number of
subgroups and ultimately we must reach a composition series.

9.19. Consider two composition series of the cyclic group of order 60:G = \
{ u , a , a ^ { 2 } , \cdots , a ^ { 5 9 } \} :

G . H = \{ u . a ^ { 2 } , a ^ { 4 } \cdots , a ^ { 5 8 } \} . J = \{ u , a ^ { 4 }
, a ^ { 8 } , \cdots , a ^ { 5 6 } \} .

K = \{ u , a ^ { 1 2 } , a ^ { 2 4 } , a ^ { 3 6 } , a ^ { 4 8 } , U = \{ u \}
114 GROUPS [CHAP.9

and G , M = \{ u , a ^ { 3 } , a ^ { 6 } , \cdots , a ^ { 5 7 } \} , N = \{ u , a
^ { 1 5 } , a ^ { 3 0 } , a ^ { 4 5 } \} , P = [ u , a ^ { 3 0 } ] . U

The quotient groups are

L H = \{ H , H a \} , H / J = \{ J , J a ^ { 2 } \} . J / K = [ K , K a ^ { 4 } , K a ^
{ 8 } \} .

K / U = \{ U , U a ^ { 1 2 } , U a ^ { 2 4 } , U a ^ { 3 6 } , U a ^ { 4 8 } \}

and G / M = \{ M , M a , M a ^ { 2 } \} , M / N = \{ N , N a ^ { 3 } , N a ^ {
6 } , N a ^ { 9 } , N a ^ { 1 2 } \} .

N / P = \{ P _ { z } P a ^ { 1 5 } \} , P / U = \{ U _ { z } U a ^ { 3 0 } \}

Then in the one-to-one correspondence: G/H H / J \leftrightarrow P / U , J / K \

leftrightarrow G / M . K / U \leftrightarrow M / N .corresponding quotient
groups are isomorphic under the mappings:

H \rightarrow P ] \rightarrow U K \rightarrow M U \rightarrow N

H a \leftrightarrow P a ^ { 1 5 } J a ^ { 2 } \rightarrow L a ^ { 3 0 } K a ^
{ 4 } + M a U a ^ { 1 2 } \rightarrow N a ^ { 3 }

K a ^ { B } \rightarrow M a ^ { 2 } U a ^ { 2 A } \rightarrow N a ^ { 6 }

U a ^ { 3 6 } \leftrightarrow N a ^ { 9 }

Ua^{48} Na^{12}

9.20. Prove: Let g be a group of order K be a subgroup of order rp of g, and

H be an invariant subgroup of order r of both K and G. Then K is an invariant
subgroup of g if and only if P = K / His an invariant subgroup oo f S = L / H .

Let g be an arbitrary element of g and letK = ( b _ { 2 } , b _ { 2 } , \cdots , b

_{rp}).

Suppose P is an invariant subgroup of S. For Hg E S,we have

(i) (Hg)P=P(Hg)

Thus,for anyH b _ { i } \in P ,,there exists E P such that

(ii) (Hg)(Hb_{i})=(Hb_{j})(Hg)

Moreovev e r , ( H g ) ( H b _ { i } ) = ( H b _ { j } ) ( H g ) = ( H g ) ( H b _ { k
} ) i m p I i e s H h _ { i } = H b _ { k } .T h e n
(iii) Hb_{i}=(Hg^{-1})(Hb_{j})(Hg)=g^{-1}(Hb
_{j})g

(iv) K = H b _ { 1 } \cup H b _ { 2 } \cup \cdots \cup H b _ { p } = g ^ { -

1 } K _ { \ominus }

and

(v) gK=Kg

Thus. K is an invariant subgroup of g.

Conversely, suppose K is an invariant subgroup of 9. [Link] simply

reversing the steps above,we conclude that P is an invariant subgroup of S.

9.21. Prove.1 and A be invarant subgroups oi 9 wilh H an ivarant subgroup or

,and lel P = K / H a n d S = L / H .Then the quotient groups S/P and G/K are
isomorphic.

Let G.K.H have the respective orderss n = r p t , r p . rr. Then K is an invariant

subgroup of index t in G and we define

G / K = \{ K c _ { 1 } , K c _ { 2 } \cdots , K c _ { i } \} .

By Theorem XXX, P is an invariant subgroup of S: then P partitions S into t

cosets so that we may write

S / P = \{ P ( H a _ { i _ { 1 } } ) , P ( H a _ { i _ { 2 } } ) _ { \cdots } P ( H a _
{ i _ { i } } ) \} H a _ { i j } \in S

Now the elements of g which make up the subgroup K, when partitioned into
cosets with respect to H,constitute [Link],each ck is found in one and only
one of the [Link],after rearranging the cosets of S/P when necessary,we
may write

S / P = \{ P ( H c _ { 1 } ) , P ( H c _ { 2 } ) . . . P ( H c _ { 1 } ) \}

The required mapping is

G / K \leftrightarrow S / P : K C i \rightarrow P ( H c _ { i } )

9.22. Prove: Let H and K be distinet maximal invariant subgroups of a group

9. Then (a) D =H n K is an invariant subgroup of G and (b) H/D is isomorphic
to 9/K and K/D is isomorphic to g/H.

(a) By Theorem X. D is a subgroup of g. Since H and K are invariant

subgroups of g,we have for each d e D and every g e g.
g ^ { - 1 } \circ d \circ g \in H . g ^ { - 1 } \circ d \circ g \in K and sos o g ^
{ - 1 } \circ d \circ g \in D

Then,for everyg \in G , g ^ { - 1 } D g = D a n d DD is an invariant subgroup

of 9.

(b) By Theorem XXV, D is an invariant subgroup of both H and [Link]

(i) H = D h _ { 1 } \cup D h _ { 2 } \cup \cdots \cup D h _ { m } .

then,sincec K ( D h _ { i } ) = ( K D ) h _ { i } = K h _ { i } ( s v h y ^ { 2 } ) .

(ii) K H = K h _ { 1 } \cup K h _ { 2 } \cup \cdots \cup K h _ { n }

By Theorem XXVI,H K = K His a subgroup of G. Then, since H is a proper

subgroup of HK and,by hypothesis, is a maximal subgroup of G, it follows
thats t H K = 9 .

From (i) and (ii).we have

H / D = \{ D h _ { 1 } , D h _ { 2 } , \cdots , D h _ { n } \} .and G / K = \{ K h
_ { 1 } , K h _ { 2 } , \cdots , K h _ { n } \}

Under the one-to-one mapping

D h _ { i } \leftrightarrow K h _ { i } . ( i = 1 , 2 , 3 , \cdots , n )

( D h i ) ( D h i ) = D ( h i o h i ) \cdots K ( h i o h i j ) = ( K / h i j ) ( K ^ { \
prime } k )

and H/D is isomorphic to 9/K. It will be left for the reader to show that K/D
and g/H are isomorphic.

116 GROUPS [CHAP.9

9.23. Prove: For a finite group with distinct composition series, all series are
of the same length. L.e..

have the same number of elements. Moreover the quotient groups for any
pair of composition

series may be put into one-to-one correspondence so that corresponding

quotient groups are

isomorphic.

Let

(a) 9,H1,H2,G _ { 1 } H _ { 1 } , H _ { 2 } , H _ { 3 } , \cdots , H _ { r } = U

(b)G _ { 1 } K _ { 1 } , K _ { 2 } , K _ { 3 } , \cdots , K _ { s } = U

be two distinct composition series of G. Now the theorem is true for any
group of order one. Let us assume it true for all groups of order less than that
of G. We consider two cases:

(i) H _ { 1 } = K _ { 1 } AAfter removing G from (a) and (b), we have

remaining two composition series of H1 for which,by assumption, the
theorem holds. Clearly, it will also hold when g is replaced in each.

(ii) H1≠[Link] D=t e D = H _ { 1 } \cap kn [Link] g/H1 (also 9/K1) is

simple and, by Theorem XXXIII, is isomorphic to K1/D (also 9/K, is isomorphic
to H1/D), then K1/D (also H1/D) is simple. Then D is the maximal invariant
subgroup of both H1 and Ki and so g has the composition series

and

(d) G _ { 1 } H _ { 1 } , D _ { 1 } , D _ { 1 } , D _ { 2 } , D _ { 3 } , \cdots , D
_{t}=U

(b') G _ { 1 } K _ { 1 } , D _ { 1 } , D _ { 2 } , D _ { 3 } , \cdots , D _ { t } = U

When the quotient groups are written in order

G/H_{1},H_{1}/D,D/D_{1},D_{1}/D_{2},D_{2}/D
_ { 3 } , \cdots , D _ { t - 1 } / D _ { t }. S / P = \{ P ( H a _ { i _ { 1 } } ) , P
( H a _ { i _ { 2 } } ) , \cdots P ( H a _ { i _ { i } } ) ] H a _ { i _ { j } } \in S

Now the elements of g which make up the subgroup K, when partitioned into
cosets with respect to H,constitute [Link],each ck is found in one and only
one of the [Link],after rearranging the cosets of S/P when necessary,we
may write

S / P = \{ P ( H c _ { 1 } ) . P ( H c _ { 2 } ) _ { \cdots } P ( H c _ { i } ) \}

The required mapping is

G / K \leftrightarrow S / P : K C _ { i } \leftrightarrow P ( H c _ { i } )

[Link]: Let H and K be distinct maximal invariant subgroups of a group g.

Then (a)H n K is an invariant subgroup of G and (b) H/D is isomorphic to G/K
and K/D is isomorphic to g/H.

(a) By Theorem X, D is a subgroup of G. Since H and Kare invariant

subgroups of g, we have for each d E D and every g e 9.

o g ^ { - 1 } \circ d \circ g \in D

g ^ { - 1 } \circ d \circ g \in H . g ^ { - 1 } \circ d \circ g \in K and so

Then,for every 8g \in G . g ^ { - 1 } D g = D a n d D)is an invariant subgroup

of g.

(b) By Theorem XXV, D is an invariant subgroup of both H and K. Suppose

(i) H = D h _ { 1 } \cup D h _ { 2 } \cup \cdots \cup D h _ { n } ,

then,sir\sin c e K ( D h _ { i } ) = ( K D ) h _ { i } = K h _ { i } ( w h y ^ { \
prime } ) .

(ii) K H = K I _ { 1 } \cup K I _ { 2 } \cup \cdots \cup K I _ { n }

By Theorem XXVI,H K = K H iis a subgroup of g. Then, since H is a proper

subgroup of HK and, by hypohesis, is a maximal subgroup of G. it follows
thatH K = G .

From (i) and (ii). we have

H / D = \{ D h _ { 1 } , D h _ { 2 r } \cdots , D h _ { n } \} . and G / K = \{ K h
_ { 1 } , K h _ { 2 } , \cdots , K h _ { n } \}

Under the one-to-one mapping

D h _ { i } \leftrightarrow K h _ { i } . ( i = 1 , 2 , 3 , \cdots , n )

( D h i ) ( D h i j ) = D ( h i o h i ) \cdots K ( h i o h i j ) = ( K h i j ( K h i j )

and H/D is isomorphic to G/K. It will be left for the reader to show that K/D
and 9/H are isomorphic.

116 GROUPS [CHAP.9

9.23. Prove: For a finite group with distinct composition series, all series are
of the same length, i.c..

have the same number of elements. Moreover the quotient groups for any
pair of composition

series may be put into one-to-one correspondence so that corresponding

quotient groups are

isomorphic.

Let

(a)9.G _ { 1 } H _ { 1 } , H _ { 2 } , H _ { 3 } , \cdots , H _ { r } = U

(b) G _ { 1 } K _ { 1 } , K _ { 2 } , K _ { 3 } , \cdots , K _ { x } = U
be two distinct composition series of G. Now the theorem is true for any
group of order one. Let us assume it true for all groups of order less than that
of 9. We consider two cases:

(i) H _ { 1 } = K _ { 1 } . AAfter removing G from (a) and (b), we have

remaining two composition series of H1 for which,by assumption, the
theorem holds. Clearly, it will also hold when g is replaced in each.

(ii)H1H _ { 1 } \neq K _ { 1 } . W r i t e D = H _ { 1 } \cap K _ { 1 }[Link]

g/H1(also G/K1) is simple and, by Theorem XXXIII, is isomorphic to K1/D (also
9/K1 is isomorphic to H1/D). then K1/D (also H1/D) is simple. Then D is the
maximal invariant subgroup of both H1 and K1 and so G has the composition
series

and

(a) G _ { 1 } H _ { 1 } , D _ { 1 } , D _ { 1 } , D _ { 2 } , D _ { 3 } , \cdots , D
_{t}=U

(b') G _ { 1 } K _ { 1 } , D _ { 2 } , D _ { 1 } , D _ { 2 } , D _ { 3 } , \cdots , D
_{t}=U

When the quotient groups are written in order

G/H_{1},H_{1}/D,D/D_{1},D_{1}/D_{2},D_{2}/D
_ { 3 } , \cdots , D _ { t - 1 } / D _ { t }

and K_{1}/D,G/K_{1},D/D_{1},D_{1}/D_{2},D_
{ 2 } / D _ { 3 } , \cdots , D _ { t - 1 } / D _ { t }

corresponding quotient groups are isomorphic, that is, 9/H: and K:/D. Hi/D
and G/K1.D/D1 and D/D1....are isomorphic.

Now by (i) the quotient groups defined in (a) and (d') [also by (b) and (b')]
may be put into one-to-one correspondence so that corresponding quotient
groups are isomorphic. Thus,the quotient groups defined by (a)and (b) are
isomorphic in some order, as required.