Contents

1. Dement and kleitman Pre mocks

2. Hassett et al. Mocks
3. Holzel et al
4. Andrade
5. Baron cohen
6. Pozzulo
7. Bandura et al
8. Fagen et al
9. Saavedra and Silverman
 Dement and Kleitman (1957)
Aim
General: To investigate the relationship between eye movements and dreaming.
Specific:
Does dream recall differ between REM and NREM stages of sleep?
Is there a positive correlation between estimated dream duration and REM period length?
Are eye movements related to the dream content?

Research Hypothesis
There will be a significant association between REM sleep and dreaming.
There will be a positive correlation between estimated dream duration and REM period length.
There will be a significant association between eye movement patterns and dream content.

Background
Psychometrics used in the study:
EEG (electroencephalogram) = traces cyclical changes that occur in brain activity during sleep.
Electrodes are placed around the skull to analyse brain waves.
EOG (electrooculograph) = traces eye movements during sleep. Uses electrodes placed around the
eye region.

REM ➜ Rapid Eye Movement is when dreaming occurs.

NREM ➜ Non-Rapid Eye Movement.

Aserinsky (1955) (a student of Kleitman) revealed that participants who were woken from REM
sleep were more likely to report a vivid, visual dream than participants that woke up from NREM.
They also showed that we have several sleep stages alternating between REM and NREM.

Research Method: A laboratory experiment, but different methods to test each aim.

Research Design
Approach 1: natural experiment; repeated measures design; IV - whether they woke up from REM
or NREM; DV - whether they recalled a dream or not.

Approach 2: True experiment using correlational study; repeated measures design; IV - waking
participants after 5 or 15 minutes into REM sleep; DV - participants guess on dream duration (5
or 15 minutes); correlational analysis used to cross-check participants' estimate dream duration
and the word count of their respective dream narrative.

Approach 3: natural experiment; repeated measures design; IV - eye movement patterns; DV -

dream content.
Sample
7 males and 2 females were recruited through opportunity sampling. 5 studied in detail and 4
used to confirm the results of the first 5.
5 main participants spent between 6 - 17 nights in the lab. Approximately 50 - 77 times
awakening.
4 spent only 1 - 2 nights. 4 - 10 times awakening.
Participants were identified by their initials.

Procedure
Participants reported to the lab before their personal bedtime. They ate their normal diet but were
asked to avoid caffeine (alertness) and alcohol (drowsiness) on the day of the study. They slept
in a dark, quiet room. They had 2 EOG electrodes near their eye and 2/3 EEG electrodes to the
scalp. A doorbell (for standardisation) had been used to wake participants up at random from
REM or NREM. All participants were woken up when an eye movement pattern lasted for at least
a minute. Everyone returned to sleep in less than 5 minutes.

Procedure 1 - They were woken up at various times to test their dream recall (during REM and
NREM). Dream narrative recorded on a tape recorder (to prevent researcher bias). They were asked
if they had a dream or not, and if they did, then they recorded it. Dream only counted if the
recall was clear.
Procedure 2 - Participants were woken up after either 5 or 15 minutes into their REM sleep.
Participants guessed the duration they had dreamt for. The number of words in the dream
narrative was counted after the participants reported their dream.

Procedure 3 - Participants’ eye movement direction was detected with the EOG. Participants were
woken up and they reported their dream.
Results
All subjects showed REM every night. REM patterns varied per individual but each individual
had a regular REM pattern.
92 minutes was the average time gap between different dreams. The range was 70 - 104
minutes.
The average REM length was 20 minutes and the range was 3 - 50 minutes. It was longer later
in the night. Bursts of 2 - 100 rapid eye movements.
Those woken in NREM returned to NREM. Those woken in REM went to NREM (but sometimes
went to REM to complete the final phase).

Results 1:
Awakenings from REM produced a dream recall of 79.6%, and from NREM produced a dream
recall of 7%.
Waking participants under 8 minutes of completing their REM period resulted in 5/17 dreams
being recalled. However, waking participants after 8 minutes resulted in only 6/132 dreams
being recalled.

Results 2:
The estimation of REM duration was accurate and very high. 88% for 5 mins; 78% for 15
minutes.
There was a positive correlation between REM duration and words in the recall. The narratives of
152 dreams were collected, but 26 were omitted due to poor recording thus, there were 126.

Results 3:
Vertical eye movement - standing at the bottom of a tall cliff and operating a hoist.
Horizontal - 2 people throwing tomatoes at each other.
Vertical and horizontal - talking to people standing close to them.
Little or no movement - watching something in the distance or staring at an object.
Conclusions
1. Dreams occur during REM sleep only. Dreams reported from NREM sleep are from
previous REM episodes.
2. Estimated dream duration and REM period lengths are very similar, thus it shows that
dreams are not instantaneous events but rather experienced in real-time.
3. Eye movements correspond to where, and what the dreamer is looking at in the dream,
hence, it explains that they are not random events.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Reliability is high as it was a lab experiment with many controls. For example, the doorbell
made people instantly wake up so that dreams wouldn't be forgotten by slow-woken
people.
Demand characteristics were avoided as participants were not told whether they were in REM
or not as otherwise, they would try recalling harder.
Exhibits validity as the details recorded focused on dreaming; the definition of a 'dream'
had been operationalised; and asking participants to choose between 5 or 15 mins helped
reduce participant variables such as the ability to guess.
Quantitative data such as brain waves, eye movement patterns, and REM sleep duration
was collected through the EEG and EOG.
Qualitative data such as the dream content was collected, but it's subjective and can affect
the validity since the narrative length is not only dependent on the REM phase length,
but also on the participant's expressiveness.
Both genders were included thus, there's generalisability. However, the sample size is too
small, therefore limiting generalisability.
Deception of participant WD being woken up in the wrong sleep stage can cause distress as
they'd try recalling dreams harder. Context: Participant WD had been told they'd be
woken up in their REM stage of sleep, but was actually woken up randomly during
their REM or NREM stages of sleep.
Lacks ecological validity as people who are used to taking alcohol & caffeine may experience
atypical dreams. Sleeping in a lab connected to electrodes would be unusual, and this
may tamper with their sleeping behaviour.

Nature vs. Nurture

Dream content relates to our experience, so it is a product of nurture. However, the ability to
dream is a product of nature.
Stages of sleep:
• awake
• drowsy
• stage I sleep
• stage 2 sleep
• slow wave ( sleep stage 3 and stage 4 )
• REM sleep
 Hassett et al. (2008)
Aim
To test if sex differences in children's toy preferences are due to biological factors (i.e. exposure to
high levels of prenatal androgen) rather than socialisation.
To investigate whether male and female rhesus monkeys have similar toy preferences to human
children despite having no experience socialising with human toys.

Background
Professor Wallen has worked with monkeys for over 50 years, at Emory University and the Yerkes
National Primate Research Centre (YNPRC).
Hines and Alexander found that male vervet monkeys played more with stereotypical male than
female toys. Wallen investigated whether monkeys showed a preference for sex-typed toys when
given a choice between stereotypical male and female toys. He found that the behaviour of monkeys
paralleled that of children using a toy-preference task, suggesting that toy preferences are not
primarily a result of socialisation, but rather are due to biological differences.

Psychology Being Investigated

The psychology being investigated is animal play.
Play = Pleasure gained in self-expression.
Animal play = An activity/action voluntarily and repeatedly done by animals as a form of
enjoyment and self-expression. Play may be adaptive, and it can help individuals practice skills
required for adulthood.

Sex Differences and the Role of Nature

The sex of mammals is determined by sex chromosomes which affect their levels of sex hormones.
This causes differences in the development of male and female brains, and consequently, their
cognitive processes.
In a nursery, boys are more likely to be seen playing with cars, and girls with dolls. However, this
doesn’t mean that girls don’t like playing with cars; in fact, research found that girls like playing
with trucks more than boys like playing with dolls.

Nature vs Nurture Debate on Toy Preferences

Nurture debate: Children learn about gender and societal norms through socialisation, leading them
to conform to stereotypical gender roles, and seek out sex-typed toys.
Hassett et al., however, reject the socialisation explanation for toy preferences and believe in the
biological explanation.

Nature debate: Boys and girls play with toys which suit their cognitive abilities, and these depend
on each child’s sex hormone levels. Hence, toys are selected due to the play activities they promote,
not due to societal norms on ‘gender-appropriate’ toys.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) = An inherited condition where the foetus is exposed to high
levels of prenatal androgens (male sex hormones).
Hassett et al. were influenced by research on children with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
(CAH). Subsequently, it led them to favour the idea that toy preferences are initially shaped by
hormones and not socialisation. Research shows that girls with CAH show a preference for male-
stereotyped toys when compared to girls without CAH. Additionally, Pasterski et al. (2005) found
that even when daughters with CAH were encouraged to play with female-stereotyped toys, they
still preferred playing with male-stereotyped toys.

Previous Research on Monkeys

Alexander and Hines (2002) found the following:
More male vervet monkeys than females played with stereotypically male toys.
Unlike humans, male monkeys spent an equal time interacting with male and female toys.
Female monkeys showed a strong preference for stereotypical female toys rather than male toys.

Research Method, Design and Variables

Research Method ➜ Field experiment involving a controlled observation, and a correlational study
using a behavioural checklist.
Research Design ➜ Independent measures design.
Independent Variable ➜ The sex of the monkey (male or female).
Dependent Variable ➜ Whether the monkeys interacted more with the plush toys or the wheeled
toys.

Sample:
• Originally, 135 monkeys were from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center Field
Station, but 53 were excluded, hence only 82 took part ➜ 61 females and 21 males.
• There were infant and adult monkeys.
• 34 monkeys (23 females & 11 males) interacted with the toys on more than 5 occasions,
therefore, their data was included in the analysis.
• Reasons for excluding the 53 monkeys:
14 had previously participated in research on prenatal hormones so they weren’t included
in the current study (to reduce demand characteristics and order effects).
39 were excluded since they were too young, and it was hard to tell their sex.

Procedure
Seven 25-minute trials were completed in the outdoor enclosure, each with a different pair of toys.
Before each observation, observers placed a pair of toys (1 wheeled, 1 plush) outside while the
monkeys waited inside. Toys were placed 10 metres apart and their positions were counterbalanced
(to ensure the monkeys didn’t prefer a certain area of the enclosure).

The toys varied in shape, size, and color, and were selected on what you could ‘do’ with them. There
were:
• 6 wheeled toys, including a wagon, truck, and car.
• 7 Plush toys, including a Winnie-the-Pooh, Raggedy Ann, and Scooby Doo doll.
Data Collection = A video camera was focused on each toy to record interactions. 2 observers
watched the videos and used a behavioural checklist to categorise the behaviour of the monkeys.
They recorded the data using the app Handobs on their palm pilots (a device similar to mobile
phones).

Data recorded by observers: The start and finish time of each interaction, and from this they
calculated the duration. The monkey’s age, sex, and rank.
Behavioural checklist included: extended touching, holding, sitting on, dragging, carrying, etc.
Examples of operationalised behaviours:
• Extended touch – Placing a hand or foot on the toy.
• Sit on – Seated on the toy or a part of the toy.
Results
Most monkeys didn’t interact with the toys. Only very few interacted frequently and for long.
Data of (17) monkeys who showed less than 5 behaviours were excluded.
• Male monkeys played with wheeled toys for a longer time than female monkeys. However,
the standard deviation was high, meaning that some males played for longer than others.
• Female monkeys played with plush toys for a longer time than male monkeys. There
wasn’t a significant difference in time spent playing with wheeled or plush toys.
• Social Rank – A significant positive correlation between social rank (dominance of
monkeys) and frequency of interaction was found.
- Higher-ranking monkeys interacted more with the toys.
- Female monkeys who preferred plush toys had a higher rank than those who had no preference.
Results - Male Monkeys
• Male monkeys preferred wheeled toys (mean = 9.77), compared to plush toys (mean =
2.06). Males played with plush toys less than females.
• 73% of males preferred wheeled toys and only 9% preferred plush toys. 18% showed no
significant preference. These preferences were not affected by age or rank.
Results - Female Monkeys
• Female monkeys showed no preference, other than an insignificant preference for plush
toys. Mean plush toys preference = 7.97. Mean wheeled toys preference = 6.96.
• Only 30% of females preferred plush toys, whereas 39% preferred wheeled toys, and 30%
showed no significant preference.

Conclusions
1. Sex-typed preferences in humans may be due to biological differences because even without
differences in socialisation, monkeys showed preferences similar to human infants.
Male monkeys similar to boys, have a strong preference for masculine-type toys. Whereas,
female monkeys are more variable in their toy preferences.
2. Toy preferences reflect behavioural and cognitive biases which have been influenced by
hormones.

Strengths
Ethical guidelines on treating lab animals were followed by researchers when caring for the
monkeys. They had constant access to water, they were fed monkey chow twice a day, and
fruits and vegetables every day.
2. Using the operationalised behavioural checklist increased the validity and reliability of
results, as it guided researchers on how to record observations in the same way. For example, the
behaviour ‘sit on’ was described as sitting on or part of a toy.
Different pairs of toys were used on each trial, and this increased the validity as we can
determine that males were drawn to wheeled toys in general, and not just a specific wheeled
toy.
Using video cameras increased the validity of the data recorded because the monkeys were used to
the cameras. If a researcher recorded data in person instead, the monkeys might show
demand characteristics by playing more or less with the toys.
Quantitative data collected on toy interaction duration allowed for the objective calculations of
the average time the monkeys spent with the toys. This removes room for subjective
interpretations.

Weaknesses
The standardised procedure was abandoned for a trial because a monkey tore a plush toy causing
the trial to be stopped 7 minutes early. This reduces the reliability of results.
There is a chance observer bias may have increased subjectivity. The researchers who analysed the
tapes were familiar with the monkeys and their gender and this could have led them to
unintentionally code the behaviour of the monkeys differently to their actual behaviour.
There was a lack of adult males in the sample, hence reducing the generalisability of results. The
only one high-ranking male didn’t interact with any toys, hence, findings can only be
generalised to lower-ranking, non-adult male monkeys.
Ecological validity is low because the sample consisted of monkeys in captivity, and they might
be more likely to show interest in new objects in their environment. Therefore, we can’t
entirely generalise results to explain if wild monkeys behave in the same way.
Validity is low because, in each trial, a group of monkeys were sent out. So if one monkey
occupied the wheeled toy, another monkey wanting to play with a toy would go to the plush
toy regardless of their personal preference.

Nature vs Nurture
Hassett believed that toy preferences in humans are due to nature because male monkeys prefer
wheeled toys over plush toys, whereas females show no clear preference.
Findings supported the nurture debate that interactions were affected by social rank. Female
monkeys' social rank was positively correlated with the time spent interacting with both toys.
However, female dominance is influenced by testosterones which is a biological effect.
Applications to everyday life
Findings are helpful when choosing toys for children. Results suggest that boys like moving
toys, so if a parent wants to develop their empathy, toy vehicles with expressive faces can be
bought.
As girls like plush toys with faces, their visuospatial skills can be improved by using toys with
moving parts but in a context where dolls are included. For example, playing a scene with toy
school buses and dolls.
 Andrade (2010)
Aim
To find out whether doodling assisted information processing by increasing attentiveness or by
enhancing memory.
Background
Research shows we perform less when our attention is divided. However, doodling might aid
concentration.
Wilson and Korn (2007) suggested that doodling may help to maintain arousal as we are doing
something physical while thinking.
Andrade defines doodling as sketching patterns or figures that are unrelated to the primary task.

Research Method
Laboratory experiment (unnatural settings)
Research Design
Independent measures design implemented as participants were either in the doodling or control
group.

Sample
40 participants who were members of the Medical Research Council of the Applied Psychology Unit
were chosen through the method of opportunity sampling. They were aged 18-55 years, mostly
women, and were paid a small sum for participation. In each experimental condition, there were 20
participants. They had just completed participating in a study and were about to go home when they
were asked if they could spare 5 minutes in Andrade's study.

Procedure
All participants listened to a dull telephone call about a party for 2.5 minutes, at a recorded speed of
227wpm (words per minute). The independent variable was whether they doodled or not. The
responses to the 2 tasks to measure recall, was the dependent variable. They were in a dull quiet
room.

Participants were told that they would be tested on the names of the partygoers — Monitoring task.
There was a surprise task where they were tested on the names of places mentioned — Recall task.
The order of tests were counterbalanced to reduce order effects. The dependent variable was
operationalised as plausible mishearings were counted as correct; totally wrong names as false
alarms; other words relating to people were ignored. The final score was the number of correct names
minus the number of false alarms.

The call had 8 names of partygoers, and 3 people and a cat who didn't attend. 8 place names were
mentioned. Participants were given standardised instructions. A4 sheets were given to participants
in the doodle group with alternating rows of squares and circles, ten per row. It had a wide margin
on the left to record targeted information. Participants were asked to shade while listening to relieve
boredom. Participants in the control group were given a lined paper.

All participants listened at a comfortable volume. The experimenter apologised for conducting a
surprise task and then conducted the 2 tasks. New names and the names mentioned on the tape as
slurs were counted as false alarms.
Results
Doodle group — mean no. of shapes shaded was 36.3 from a range of 3-110. No participants in the
control group spontaneously doodled.
The control and doodling group made an average false alarm of 0.3 in the Recall task.

Task 1: Monitoring Task Results

Participants of the control group recalled a mean of 7.1 names. 5 people made a false alarm.
Participants of the doodling group recalled a mean of 7.8 names. 1 person made a false alarm.

Overall Results
Doodling participants recalled a mean of 7.5 names and places, 29% more than the mean of the control
group (5.8).
Recall for both tasks was better for doodlers, even when participants suspected of demand
characteristics were excluded.

Conclusions
Doodling helps concentration on a primary task as doodling participants performed better than
participants who only listened to the primary task.
Doodle group performed better on both tasks. There are 2 possible explanations:
i) either doodling affected attention or,
ii) doodling improved memory by encouraging deeper information processing.

However, without a measure of daydreaming, it is difficult to distinguish between the 2

explanations. Daydreaming could have been measured either through a self-report or by using
brain scans to identify reduced activation of the cortex. The cortex is associated with daydreaming.

Strengths and Weaknesses

Extraneous variables could be controlled as it was a lab experiment. For example, people listened at a
comfortable volume so there were no differences in stress on words
The standardised procedure made all participants equally likely to be bored and therefore daydream.
For example, the same monotonous recording was used and all participants were sat in a dull quiet
room. This improves validity as differences in results were due to doodling or not. There is high
reliability as all participants were similarly bored.
The operationalisation of doodling was standardised by using the doodling sheets and this increases
validity. The dependent variable had been operationalised in terms of false alarms and score
calculation.
Participants' age ranged from 18-55 years thus, were representative. However, they are from a
recruitment panel and may be very similar. For example, they all may be interested in psychology.
This could bias the sample, therefore lowers validity. Further, most of the participants were females.
The study collected quantitative data, the number of names and places. This is an objective record of
memory. It would have had been helpful to ask participants for self-reports of any daydreaming to
understand whether differences in results were due to attention or daydreaming.
Ethical Concerns
Participants did not give informed consent fully for the recall task. This may have caused
psychological distress. However, participants were debriefed and apologised to by the researchers.
Application to Everyday Life
When listening to a lecture, doodling might be advantageous. However, deliberately drawing
something may be counterproductive.

Individual vs. Situational Explanation for Behaviour

As doodling affected recall, this shows a situational effect on information processing. However,
people do not doodle in the same way. This shows an individual difference behind doodling
behaviour.
 Baron cohen et al (2001)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) = A neurodevelopmental disorder impairing a child's ability
to communicate and interact. Symptoms: repetitive behaviour, little or no eye contact and can't
recognise facial expressions. High Functioning Autism is HFA.

Aspergers Syndrome (AS) = Autism spectrum disorder that affects language and
communication skills. Symptoms: restricted & repetitive behaviours and trouble identifying
facial expressions.

Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ)= self-report questionnaire with scores ranging from 0 to
50. A high score suggests that the person has more autistic traits.

Theory of Mind (ToM) = the ability to understand the view of another.

The original study (1997)

The original study had numerous issues. Participants were presented with 25 photos showing
different eye expressions and they chose the mental state shown between 2 options.
Issues with the original study:
1. It had more female faces than male faces. Solution: equal no. of male and female faces in the
RET question.
2. Test had both basic and complex mental states. The basic ones were too easy. Solution: Only
complex mental states were used.
Aim
1. To test if the revised version of the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' test would be successful at
differentiating participants with AS or HFA (High Functioning Autism) from the general
population.
2. To test if there is a negative correlation in a sample of normal adults and between the RET and
the AQ.
3. To test any sex differences on the RET when normal adults take the test.

Hypotheses
1. Participants with autism will score significantly lower in the RET than the control group.
2. Participants with autism will score significantly higher on the AQ test.
3. Females in the 'normal' group (grp 2 & 3) will score higher on the RET than males in those
groups.
4. Males in the 'normal' group will score higher on the AQ measure than females.
5. Scores on the AQ and RET will be negatively correlated.

Background
Baron-Cohen suggested that people with autism have an undeveloped 'ToM'. To measure the 'ToM'
of individuals, Baron-Cohen came up with the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' task where
participants would be evaluated on their ability to label others' emotions by observing their eye
expressions on photos.
Sample
Group 1: 15 male adults with AS/HFA. Self-selecting sampling from the UK National Autistic
Society through a magazine advert. Average IQ of 115; from a mix of socio-economic and educational
backgrounds.
Group 2 - Comparative control group of adults: 122 adults from the adult community & educational
classes from Exeter and public library users in Cambridge. 55 males and 67 females. From a broad
mix of occupations and education.
Group 3 - Comparative control group of students: 103 undergraduate students from Cambridge. 53
males and 50 females. Assumed to have IQ higher than other participants.
Group 4 - IQ matched controls: 14 randomly selected adults whose IQ matched with that of group 1.
Average IQ of 116.
Research Method, Design and Variables
Quasi-experiment.
Independent groups design
Independent Variables: Whether they had AS/HFA or were normal, and gender.
Dependent Variables: RET score, AQ score, and gender identification for group 1.

Procedure
A. Developing the Revised Eye Test (RET): Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright originated target words and
foils for 36 photos. It was piloted on 8 judges (4 males and 4 females). At least 5 judges had to agree on
the target word and no more than 2 judges could select any single foil word. If this did not happen, the
target word and or foil would be repiloted until the criteria were met for each.

In pilot tests, groups 2 and 3 achieved 100% on judging gender. The control group were tested with 40
photos but 4 were eliminated, resulting in 36 items. When results were being calculated, only the data
for the 36 eye sets were taken.

B. Implementing the Tests: Each test was individually administered in a quiet room at either
Cambridge or Exeter. There was no time limit. Each participant was given a practice test and then
presented with 36 sets of eyes and 4 possible target words. Group 1 judged the gender of each photo as a
control task. Participants in groups 1, 3 & 4 completed the AQ test. They read through the glossary of
terms and were asked to ask questions as needed; they could use the glossary during the test.

Ethics
Participants' consent was taken and they knew the nature of the study. Group 1 participants had been
diagnosed in specialist centres using APA criteria. The data collected was anonymised.

Results
• Scores ranged from 17 - 35, with a mode of 24.
• Adults with AS/HFA performed significantly worse than other groups for the RET (H1 supported).
• On the AQ test, adults with AS/HFA performed significantly higher than the control groups (H2
supported).
• Females scored higher on the RET (H3 supported).
• There was a significant negative correlation (-0.53) between scores on AQ and RET (H5 supported).
Conclusions
• Current study replicated findings that AS/HFA adults are significantly impaired in
identifying the emotions of others.
• Current study replicated findings that AS/HFA adults score significantly higher on the AQ
test than the general population.
• There were gender differences found on the RET as females performed better than men. However,
it would have been more significant with a greater sample.
The Revised Eye Test was a more sensitive measure of adult social intelligence.

Strengths and Weaknesses

S1:It was a lab experiment, so confounding variables could be controlled. Thus, there is internal
validity and it is easily replicable. Everyone saw the same set of eyes.
S2:Improvements on the eyes test improved validity.
W1:The study lacks ecological validity as eye expressions in real life are quick, and not static.
W2:The experimental sample (group 1) is small, so generalising results to those with AS/HFA is
not possible.
W3:Only the eyes were used, but normally we study the whole face (mouths are expressive)
therefore it lacks ecological validity.
W4:As this was a quasi-experiment, it wasn't possible to randomly allocate participants to the
conditions. This introduces a confounding variable as it could be another factor causing the
defence in scores between groups. Researchers try to attend to this by having the IQ matched
control group.

Application to Everyday Life

Programmes could be conducted to help people with AS/HFA in developing their skills of
interpreting emotions. The eyes test could be improved to help diagnose individuals who may have
underlying autistic disorders.

Individual vs. Situational Explanations

The AS/HFA group performed significantly worse on the RET than the 'normal' group. This
suggests that the ability to identify mental states is an individual skill that is developed. The
environment had been standardised (supports individual explanation).

Children as Participants
Sophisticated words would not be appropriate for children. So, the 'Anne and Sally' test was
developed to understand the theory of mind of children.
 Fagen et al (2014)
Aim: To investigate whether secondary positive reinforcement can be used to train elephants to
voluntarily complete a trunk wash, allowing them to be tested for TB.

Background
Dr. Ariel Fagan is a veterinary behaviourist of the American College of Veterinary Behaviour, who
has conducted research at animal shelters and wildlife breeding centres.
In this research, captive elephants had to be tested for TB (Tuberculosis), so researchers wanted to
train them to voluntarily do trunk washes to reduce stress.

Psychology Being Investigated

Researchers used positive reinforcement (a type of operant conditioning), by rewarding elephants
for performing specific trunk movements in the correct order.

Rewards were in the form of primary and secondary reinforcers.

A primary reinforcer motivates a behaviour because it satisfies basic needs.
A secondary reinforcer reinforces a behaviour linked to a primary reinforcer.

Primary reinforcers = Chopped bananas (which satisfy hunger); given to the elephant each time
it moved its trunk to the correct position.
Secondary reinforcer = A short blast from a whistle given at the same time as the bananas are
presented. The whistle doesn’t meet any needs, but if they associate the whistle with the banana
via classical conditioning, then the whistle itself becomes a powerful reinforcer.

The diagram below describes how classical conditioning turns the whistle blast into a secondary
reinforcer.

Research Method, Design and Variables

Research method: A controlled observation, and a structured observation using a behavioural
checklist.
Research design: Repeated measures design.
Independent variable: The cues/offers made to the elephants.
Dependent variable:
Training duration from when the elephant is offered the first cue, to the last cue.
The number of cues made to the elephant by the trainer.
The success rate for each behaviour and sequence.

Grading behaviour: They passed if they showed the correct behaviour for 8/10 cues (80%) and
were considered successful if the trainer thought they were ready to do real TB trunk-wash tests
on their own.
From session 10 onwards, at every 5th session, they’d be tested on everything they learned
until then.
Grading sequence of behaviours (for ex. trunk in hand then trunk up): Behaviour sequences
were graded after grading behaviours individually (which achieved a 90% success rate). The
success criterion was 80%. If a sequence failed, they’d then be tested on shorter sequences/
individual behaviours.
The training stopped when elephants achieved an 80% success rate on the full five-stepped
trunk wash sequence.
Sample
5 female elephants from Nepal ➜ 4 juveniles aged 5-7, and one adult aged at least 50 years
old.
Elephants were all tame, born in the stable, and none were pregnant.
Elephants had no previous experience with secondary positive reinforcement training.
Their mahouts were happy to participate and were present in all sessions to assure the trainers’
safety, but they didn’t interact with the elephants.

Procedure
Elephants were trained in the morning (7:30-10:00 am) and/or afternoon (4:00-7:00 pm) and
were chained in their stalls at the stable.

To complete a trunk wash, elephants had to:

1. Put their trunk into the trainer’s hand so saline is inserted.
2. Lift their trunk and hold the fluid in.
3. Lower their trunk into a bucket.
4. Blow into the bucket to remove the fluid.
5. Hold the trunk steady before relaxing.

The behavioural checklist was used to measure how successful the elephants were in completing
the behaviours in the checklist.
Methods used to train elephants:
Capturing: Elephants were encouraged using rewards to perform normal behaviours as part of
their usual routine. For example, if an elephant spontaneously lifted their trunk, she’d be
given chopped bananas. This captured their behaviour, making it commonly repeated.
Luring: Trainers encouraged unusual behaviours by positioning treats accordingly. For
example, if the trainer needed the elephant to stretch its trunk out, they’d put a treat out of
reach to lure them towards it.
Shaping: Elephants were rewarded for all behaviours similar to the final goal. For example, they’d be
rewarded for blowing fluid near the bucket. Although gradually they were only rewarded for accurate
behaviours. I.e., blowing it into the bucket, hence shaping their behaviours over time.
Secondary reinforcers: Through classical conditioning, they were taught to associate the whistle blast
with the arrival of chopped bananas. This helped them quickly learn the association between their
behaviour and the reward.

Once the elephants had learned all behaviours individually, trainers used verbal cues (one-syllable
non words) to prompt elephants to perform the behaviours in sequences. Elephants were rewarded only
if they completed the sequence in the right order, and gradually they learnt to perform all behaviours
together.

The syringe was introduced after the elephants learned the trunk-wash behaviour. Since the syringe is
an aversive stimulus (as they find it unpleasant), researchers desensitised them to it by gradually
exposing it during each step. They also used counterconditioning to associate the syringe with the
arrival of bananas, making the syringe a conditioned stimulus instead of an aversive stimulus.

Steps in introducing the syringe:

The syringe would touch the outside of their trunks.
The syringe would be placed inside their trunks.
A drop of fluid was injected.
1-15ml was injected.
60ml was injected.

Results
Elephants learned the trunk wash in 25-35 sessions.
The average session duration was 12 minutes, ranging from 10 to 13 minutes.
The average training time was 367 minutes, and sessions ranged from 257 to 451 minutes.
Elephant 5 failed to learn the full wash sequence in the time available, she was not tested, or included
in the results. She was never fully desensitised to the syringe, and if her training session time is
added to the results, the average training time increases to 378 minutes.
Elephants 2 & 4 didn’t fully learn to do the ‘trunk steady’ behaviour individually, but they did it as
part of the full trunk wash.
The success rate for individual behaviours & sequences increased from 39% after 10 sessions to 89.3%
after 35 sessions.
The practice required to master individual behaviours varied significantly. For example, ‘trunk in
hand’ required 295 offers on average, whereas blow into bucket took only around 54 offers.

Conclusions
Secondary positive reinforcement is effective for training juvenile, traditionally trained elephants to
voluntarily and reliably participate in a trunk wash.

Strengths
The behavioural checklist had operationalised descriptions. For example, ‘bucket’ was described as ‘the
distal end of the trunk is gently placed inside the bucket’. Operationalisation helped increase the
reliability of the recordings.
The mahouts did not speak or signal to the elephants upon request of researchers for the duration of the
study. This means that changes in behaviour are solely due to secondary positive reinforcement
given by trainers, hence proving the high validity of the results.
Ethical guidelines of consent, psychological harm, & safety were followed as elephants were allowed to
refuse participation by walking away. This helped reduce their distress, subsequently lowering the
risk posed to trainers, observers, and mahouts of being physically harmed in the case the elephants
got uncooperative.
Elephant 1, the youngest got distracted and impatient if the training sessions were too long. Hence,
they reduced the tests from 8-16 trials to just 5, to reduce the physiological distress she experienced.
Data collection occurred in natural settings (where the elephants lived) with animal noises coming from
the surrounding jungle. This increases the ecological validity of results, proving that findings
would be similar if conducted on elephants in safari parks and zoos.

Weaknesses
Only 5 elephants were used in the study, limiting the generalisability of results to male and adult
elephants. The one & only adult elephant (elephant 5) had physical issues and failed to learn the full
trunk wash. Adults may be able to learn the trunk wash using secondary positive reinforcement,
but more research is required.
Since the amount of times Elephant 1 was tested had been reduced, this means standardised
procedureswere not followed. Therefore, this limited the reliability of the results.
Although the two observers had rated the elephants’ behaviour, they may not have found the same results
due to subjective observer bias. Hence, using a camera to record their behaviour would have improved
results as their validity could have been re-ensured.
The elephants regularly failed the steady task – they only reached 70% accuracy instead of 80% because
they were not good at the trunk-down task, hence reducing the validity of the results. The
operational definition of ‘steady’ included completing 3 ‘trunk-here’ & ‘trunk down’ tests and 4
‘trunk-up’ tests, but the elephants had trouble completing the ‘trunk-down’ task.
The total training time is inaccurate since it included the time for training behaviours which weren’t
part of the trunk wash, hence reducing the validityof the results. For example, 4 elephants were
trained on the ‘trunk-out’ behaviour, which was later stopped since it wasn’t necessary.
The measurement of the elephants’ performances was subjective since they had to decide if they felt the
elephants successfully completed a full trunk wash. For example, the angle might have been
difficult to interpret correctly, or a bit of liquid may have been spilled and the outcome could be
reported differently by another observer.

Individual vs Situational Explanation

Elephant 5 failed to learn the trunk wash due to individual differences such as being older much than
the others and having physical issues (abscess on her foot, and impaired vision). Contrastingly, her
slow rate of learning might have also been due to situational factors – for example, the young calf who
strayed into her stall might’ve distracted her.

Application to real-life
The study proves that captive elephants can be trained to cooperate for vet procedures in a safe & efficient
way. The trunk wash is critical for managing TB in animal sanctuaries & zoos, and it ensures the
health & well-being of animals, as well as humans who could potentially catch it from them.
Additionally, the technique of positive reinforcement can be used to teach other behaviours. This
would reduce the need for manual restraints & sedatives when undergoing blood sampling and x-
rays, reducing stress and improving well-being.
 Saavedva & Silverman (2002)
Aim
To understand the causes of button phobia (koumpounophobia) in a child.
To treat a child’s phobia of buttons using disgust and fear responses.

Background
Classical conditioning was investigated by Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning is learning through
association. 2 stimuli (neutral and unconditioned) are linked together to produce a new learned
response. Some psychologists believe that phobias can be learned and unlearned just like other
behaviours. Phobias may be caused by evaluative learning which is a type of classical conditioning
where the individual forms an association between a previously neutral stimulus and a negative
emotion.

Hepburn and Page (1999) – Page, in his study of adults with a blood phobia, found that treating
patients’ disgust and fear would help them to make progress.
Research Method, Design and Variables
It was a case study involving one participant. His life history and treatment were studied in-depth.
Data were collected using self-report measures. The boy and his mother were interviewed about the onset
of his phobia and the subsequent behaviour.

Sample
A 9-year-old Hispanic American boy.
He started showing symptoms for 4 years prior to the start of the study when he knocked over a bowl of
buttons in front of his class and teacher.
Sampled through the opportunity sampling technique.
The boy and the mother gave informed consent to participate and publish the results.

Methodology
The DSM-IV (4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) was used to
diagnose him with button phobia (koumpounophobia). The results of the treatment were measured
using a 9-point scale of disgust known as the 'Feelings thermometer'.
Procedure
An exposure-based treatment programme that tackled cognition and behaviours was used. With the
suggestion of the boy, a special disgust and fear hierarchy using a distress rating from 0-8 was
devised, with 8 being ‘small clear plastic buttons’ and 0 being 'large denim buttons'. The boy was
asked to rate 11 different scenarios that included buttons. The subjective ratings were used as a
Feelings Thermometer.

Interventions used

2 interventions were used:

Positive Reinforcement Therapy ➔ a behavioural therapy based on operant conditioning. Using positive
reinforcement principles, contingency management was applied. The boy was rewarded for showing
less fear and for handling the buttons. The mother provided positive reinforcement if the boy
successfully completed the gradual exposure to buttons. Sessions lasted for about 30 minutes with
the boy alone, and 20 minutes with the boy and his mother.
Imagery Exposure ➔ Imagery exposure therapy was based on classical conditioning using the Vivo
method. An interview with the boy revealed that he found buttons touching his body
disgusting and believed that buttons smelled unpleasant. This formed the basis for disgust
imagery exercises. The boy was asked to imagine buttons falling on him, and consider how
they looked, felt, and smelled. Exposures progressed from images of larger to smaller buttons,
in line with the boy's fear hierarchy.

The boy had 4 sessions of behavioural exposure to the buttons using the hierarchy. Then 7 sessions
were planned to look into his disgust imagery and cognitions. He got to know what he found
disgusting about buttons and, researchers used self-control and cognitive strategies with him to
change these thoughts.

Result
Positive reinforcement therapy
The boy was observed approaching the buttons more positively. His objective ratings of distress
increased between sessions 2 and 3. By session 4, the number of items on the hierarchy increased
in dislike from the original scores.
Despite his behaviour to the fearful stimuli improving, his feelings of disgust and fear increased by
the end of the therapy. Findings were consistent with evaluated learning.
Despite the behavioural change, evaluative reactions are unchanged or have increased.

Imagery exposure therapy

The therapy was successful in reducing his rating of distress. For example, when he had to imagine
buttons falling on him, prior to imagery therapy/cognitive restructuring, he rated the experience as
8 on a scale of 0 to 8. This rating decreased to 5 midways through the session, and was just 3 by the
end of the session.
The boy was followed up 6 and 12 months after treatment and at both times he did not meet the
DSM-IV criteria for a specific phobia anymore. He could wear clear plastic buttons on his school
uniform shirt.

Conclusion
Emotions and cognitions relating to disgust are important in the development and maintenance of
a phobia.
Imagery exposure has a long-term effect on reducing distress relating to specific phobias as it
tackles negative evaluations.

Strengths and Weaknesses

The study is highly valid as the participant was studied over a period of time.
Standardised measures such as the Feelings Thermometer were used.
Quantitative data collected show the improvements seen which were highly likely due to the
treatment.
Qualitative data collected was helpful in understanding the reasons underlying phobias.
They got rid of his phobia.
The sample is difficult to generalise from as the case is less likely to be representative of the
general population.
The study is subjective as the boy created his own hierarchy of disgust/fear and gave personal
ratings.
The case study involved building rapport with the participant thus, there is less room for
objectivity researcher bias may take place, further compromising validity.
There might have been demand characteristics shown as the boy was fully aware he was
undergoing therapy; this might have affected the ratings he gave.

Application to real life

Shows how therapy based on classical conditioning can be used to treat some phobias. It also
shows the long-term improvement from exposure therapies.
Nature vs Nurture
Classical conditioning relies solely on a nurture-based explanation of learning. Phobias are not
innate but, are considered to be products of negative experiences with previously neutral stimuli.

Use of children in psychological research

The boy and the mother gave informed consent. The study was highly distressing however,
researchers aimed to improve his quality of life which may justify the temporary distress caused
during the treatment.
 Holzel et al
Psychology Being Investigated
Mindfulness Meditation – Central to this study is the practice of mindfulness meditation, which is
grounded in the theory that focused, non-judgmental awareness of the present moment can lead
to improved mental health and cognitive functioning. Mindfulness meditation, as a form of mental
training, is theorized to induce changes in the brain through repeated practice.

Neuroplasticity – This is a foundational concept in the study. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s
ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. The study
hypothesizes that mindfulness meditation can lead to changes in brain structures, indicating that
the brain is not a static organ but is malleable and can be shaped by experiences, including
meditative practices.

Stress Reduction and Psychological Well-being – The study explores how mindfulness-based
interventions, like MBSR, can reduce stress and improve overall psychological health. This is
based on the theory that mindfulness can alter one’s relationship to stressful events, thereby
reducing the psychological impact of stress.

Brain Areas Associated with Mindfulness Practices – The focus on specific brain areas (like the
hippocampus, PCC, TPJ, and cerebellum) is based on their known roles in functions such as
memory, learning, emotional regulation, and self-referential processing. The theory suggests that
changes in these areas might underlie the psychological benefits observed with mindfulness
practices.

Background
Prior research in the field of mindfulness meditation has consistently highlighted its positive impact
on psychological well-being. Studies have shown significant reductions in symptoms of stress,
anxiety, and depression, alongside improvements in emotional regulation. This psychological
benefit is not just confined to clinical populations; it extends to healthy individuals as well.
Additionally, mindfulness practices have been linked to cognitive enhancements, including better
attention, concentration, and working memory. These findings are particularly relevant in a society
increasingly grappling with mental health challenges and cognitive overload.

On the neurobiological front, mindfulness meditation has been associated with structural and
functional changes in the brain. Neuroimaging studies have revealed alterations in brain areas
responsible for attention, emotion regulation, and self-awareness, such as increased gray matter
density in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. This supports the concept of neuroplasticity,
suggesting that the brain is adaptable and can be reshaped by experiences like meditation.
Moreover, mindfulness has been shown to modify self-referential processing, which is believed to
reduce tendencies towards rumination and excessive self-focus, common in mental health
conditions like depression. These neurological changes underscore the tangible impact of
mindfulness practices on the brain’s structure and function, reinforcing their potential as a tool for
enhancing mental health and cognitive functioning.
Aims
Investigate whether participation in an 8-week Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction course (MBSR)
could lead to changes in gray matter concentration in the brain.
Identify brain regions that changed in association with participation in the MBSR course.
Procedure
The researchers used a method called voxel-based morphometry to measure changes in gray matter
concentration in the brains of participants who completed an eight-week mindfulness-based stress
reduction (MBSR) program.

Sample
The study included 18 healthy, right-handed individuals who were enrolled in the MBSR program. The
participants were recruited from four MBSR courses held at the Center for Mindfulness at the
University of Massachusetts Medical School. The courses included physician- and self-referred
individuals from across New England who were seeking stress reduction.

The participants were included in the study if they self-reported as physically and psychologically
healthy and not taking any medications. Further inclusion criteria were as follows: no meditation
classes in the past 6 months, no more than four classes in the past 5 years, or 10 classes in their
lifetime; 25 to 55 years old; no contraindications for MRI scanning (i.e., metallic implants,
claustrophobia); commitment to attend all eight classes and perform the prescribed daily homework.

Methodology
The study used a pre-post design, meaning that the researchers measured gray matter concentration in
the participants’ brains before and after they completed the MBSR program. The researchers also
compared the participants’ brain scans to a control group of 17 individuals who did not complete the
MBSR program.

The researchers used a variety of controls to ensure that any changes in gray matter concentration were
due to the MBSR program and not other factors. For example, they made sure that the participants did
not have any metallic implants or claustrophobia, which could affect the MRI scans. They also made
sure that the participants did not have any other meditation experience in the past 6 months, no more
than four classes in the past 5 years, or 10 classes in their lifetime.

The researchers collected data using MRI scans to measure gray matter concentration in the
participants’ brains. They also collected demographic information about the participants, including age,
gender, ethnicity, and education level.

Results
Increase in Gray Matter Concentration in the Left Hippocampus: The MBSR group showed a significant
increase in gray matter concentration in the left hippocampus compared to the control group.
Whole Brain Analysis: Exploratory whole brain analysis revealed four clusters with significantly
greater gray matter concentration at the post time-point compared to the pre time-point in the MBSR
group.
 These regions include:
Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC)
Left Temporo-Parietal Junction (TPJ)
Two clusters in the cerebellum (one in the cerebellar vermis and brainstem, and the other in the lateral
parts of the posterior and flocculonodular lobe)
Control Group Analysis: No significant changes in gray matter concentration were observed in the
control group for these regions, except for a decrease in the PCC cluster.

The bar chart above shows the changes in brain gray matter concentration in various regions for the
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) group compared to the control group.

Key Observations
MBSR Group
There were significant increases in gray matter concentration in all measured brain regions,
including the left hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), left temporo-parietal junction
(TPJ), cerebellar vermis/brainstem, and lateral cerebellum.
Control Group
No significant changes were observed in most regions, except for a decrease in gray matter
concentration in the PCC.
Conclusion
Participation in an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program was associated with
changes in gray matter concentration in brain regions involved in learning and memory processes,
emotion regulation, self-referential processing, and perspective taking. The study provides evidence that
mindfulness practice can lead to changes in the brain that may have important implications for
mental health and well-being. The study also suggests that mindfulness practice can lead to
improvements in mindfulness subscales, such as acting with awareness, observing, and non-judging.

Strengths
Use of a control group – One strength of the study is the use of a control group. The study included a
control group of individuals who did not participate in the mindfulness-based stress reduction
(MBSR) program. This allowed the researchers to compare changes in gray matter concentration
between the MBSR group and the control group. The use of a control group strengthens the internal
validity of the study by ruling out alternative explanations for the observed changes in gray
matter concentration.
Use of voxel-based morphometry – Another strength of the study is the use of voxel-based morphometry (VBM)
to measure changes in gray matter concentration in the brain. VBM is a well-established method for
measuring changes in gray matter concentration and has been used in numerous studies of mindfulness
and meditation. The use of VBM strengthens the validity of the study’s findings by providing a reliable
and objective measure of changes in gray matter concentration.
Use of a standardized mindfulness program – A third strength of the study is the use of a standardized
mindfulness program. The study used the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, which is
a well-established and widely used mindfulness program. The use of a standardized program strengthens
the external validity of the study by increasing the generalizability of the findings to other populations
and settings. Additionally, the use of a standardized program allows for replication of the study’s
findings by other researchers.
Weaknesses
Small sample size – One weakness of the study is the small sample size. The study included only 18
participants who completed the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program and 17 individuals
in the control group. A small sample size reduces the generalizability of the study’s findings and
increases the risk of Type II errors (i.e., failing to detect a true effect). A larger sample size would increase
the statistical power of the study and improve the generalizability of the findings.
Lack of randomisation – Another weakness of the study is the lack of randomization. The study did not use
random assignment to assign participants to the MBSR group or the control group. Instead, participants
were self-selected into the groups. This increases the risk of selection bias, which occurs when participants in
one group differ systematically from participants in another group. A randomized design would have
reduced the risk of selection bias and increased the internal validity of the study.
• Lack of blinding – A third weakness of the study is the lack of blinding. The researchers who conducted the
study were not blinded to the group assignment of the participants. This increases the risk of experimenter
bias, which occurs when the researchers’ expectations or beliefs influence the outcome of the study. Blinding
the researchers to the group assignment of the participants would have reduced the risk of experimenter bias
and increased the internal validity of the study.