WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
MODULE 5 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION OF GROUNDWATER
Geophysical methods are non-invasive techniques used to investigate subsurface conditions and locate
groundwater. These methods detect physical properties (like resistivity, density, magnetism, seismic
velocity) of underground materials, helping to map aquifers, water-bearing formations, and geological
structures.
Geophysical methods are non-invasive scientific techniques used to investigate the physical properties of
the Earth's subsurface. These methods measure various natural and induced fields (like electrical,
magnetic, seismic, and gravitational) to infer geological structures and conditions without drilling or
excavation.
These tools are essential in multiple fields including civil engineering, environmental studies, mining, oil
exploration, and especially hydrogeology—where they help locate, map, and assess groundwater
resources.
Importance of Geophysical Methods in Groundwater Exploration
Groundwater is a critical source of fresh water for drinking, agriculture, and industry. However, it is
invisible and lies beneath the Earth’s surface, making it challenging and expensive to locate using
traditional trial-and-error drilling.
Why Are Geophysical Methods Important?
1. Non-Destructive & Economical
• No need for extensive excavation or drilling.
• Reduce the cost and number of boreholes required.
• Ideal for large-scale surveys over wide areas.
2. Accurate Identification of Aquifers
• Help detect depth, thickness, and extent of aquifers.
• Distinguish between freshwater and saline water zones.
• Identify confined, unconfined, and perched aquifers.
3. Time-Efficient
• Surveys can be conducted quickly, often within days, even in inaccessible areas.
• Useful in emergency water supply planning, such as during droughts.
4. Supports Sustainable Water Management
• Prevents over-extraction and mismanagement of groundwater.
• Helps in planning recharge zones, rainwater harvesting, and groundwater recharge projects.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
5. Useful in Complex Geologies
• Effective in areas with rocky, faulted, or layered terrains.
• Help map subsurface fractures, faults, and weathered zones—key features that store or transmit
groundwater.
6. Environmental Safety
• Minimal ecological disturbance as methods are surface-based.
• Essential for environmental impact assessments in construction and mining.
Common Physical Properties Measured in Geophysical Methods:
Physical Property Related Method Groundwater Use
Electrical Resistivity Locating aquifers, water table, saline
Electrical Resistivity
Method intrusion
Seismic Velocity Seismic Refraction Mapping bedrock and saturated layers
Magnetic Susceptibility Magnetic Method Identifying geological structures
Gravitational Field Gravity Method Locating basins, faults
Electromagnetic
EM Method Differentiating freshwater and saline zones
Conductivity
Geophysical methods have become indispensable tools in groundwater exploration. By providing a
quick, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly means of surveying below the Earth’s surface, these
methods greatly enhance the accuracy and efficiency of groundwater studies.
They not only reduce the guesswork in drilling but also support sustainable water management practices
critical for both rural and urban development.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
METHODS
1. Electrical Resistivity Method (ERM): Most widely used method for groundwater surveys.
➤ Principle:
• Measures the resistance of subsurface materials to the flow of electrical current.
• Water-saturated formations have low resistivity, while dry rocks and compact layers have high
resistivity.
➤ Procedure:
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Electrodes are placed in the ground to inject current and measure voltage differences.
• Data is collected at various depths to create a resistivity profile.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
➤ Applications:
• Locating water table depth.
• Identifying aquifer thickness and extent.
• Differentiating between freshwater and saline water zones.
2. Seismic Refraction Method: Prospecting based on the analysis of elastic waves generated
in the earth by artificial means.
The elastic waves produced during sudden disturbance is called as Seismic wave.
These seismic waves are recorded using the instrument, Seismograph and
the record obtained is Seismogram.
It is an important geophysical prospecting applied in oil and natural gas deposits,
deep ground water exploration, depth estimation, geotechnical problems.
Principles: Seismic prospecting depend upon the difference in wave velocity and
transmission pattern of elastic waves through different rock formations.
The waves are generated by explosives, hammering big nails, weight dropping
techniques.
Types of seismic waves:
➢ Primary waves or Longitudinal waves (P waves): High frequency, relatively low
wavelength.
In Solid, Liquid, Gas media. Particles- to and fro in motion
➢ Shear waves (S waves): Relatively high frequency , relatively high wavelength.
In Solid media.
➢ Love waves (L waves): Low frequency, high wavelength, in Crust only.
Responsible for earthquakes.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
Propagation of seismic wave in any medium depends upon the elastic modulus and the density of the
body. Only P and S waves are used for Seismic exploration purpose. The travel time gives the velocity,
hence depth and structure can be determined.
➤ Principle:
• Measures the travel time of seismic waves (produced by a hammer or explosion) as they move
through subsurface layers.
• Waves travel faster through hard, saturated rocks and slower through soft, dry materials.
•
Two types of Seismic prospecting: Reflection seismic’s,efraction seismic’s
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
➢ Refraction is introduced for oil exploration early 1923, in Mexico. It was the first
seismic technique used in petroleum prospecting. Later it became successful in
finding a great number of shallow Gulf Coast salt domes.
➢ Seismic refraction method had been applied by some seismologists to determine
the structure of interior of the Earth from records of earthquake. In 1912
Gutenberg discovered the earth’s core and calculated the depth by refraction
method.
➢ Seismic refraction prospecting involves refraction of seismic waves on geologic
layers and rock/soil units in order to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions
and geologic structure.
➢ Refraction prospecting is more effective if the depth is high i.e., >3000mt.
➤ Procedure:
• A seismic source generates waves, and geophones placed on the surface record the arrival time.
• A velocity-depth model is created.
➤ Applications:
• Mapping depth to bedrock or water table.
• Identifying fractures or fault zones which may hold water.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
3. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical
technique that uses electromagnetic waves to image the subsurface. It can be used to find
buried objects, image subsurface structures, and more.
How it works
• A GPR unit sends electromagnetic waves into the ground.
• The waves reflect, refract, or scatter back to the surface.
• A receiving antenna captures the reflected waves and records them.
• The recorded data is used to create images of the subsurface.
GPR limitations
• GPR is typically limited to depths of about 10 meters.
• The results of GPR are non-unique and should be compared with other evidence.
• Materials with high conductivity or water saturation can affect the GPR signal.
GPR history
The Apollo 17 mission used a GPR called ALSE to record depth information around the moon.
➤ Principle:
• Uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves that penetrate the ground and reflect off subsurface
interfaces.
• Reflected signals indicate changes in moisture content and material composition.
➤ Procedure:
• An antenna is moved across the surface, sending and receiving radar pulses.
• Data is displayed in real time as radargrams.
➤ Applications:
• Environmental investigations: GPR can be used to study subsurface material composition and gas
content.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Engineering investigations: GPR can be used to assess the structure of pavements, bridge decks,
and more.
• Archaeological investigations: GPR can be used to pinpoint unmarked graves.
• Locating shallow water tables.
• Detecting buried pipes, cavities, and fractures.
• Not suitable for clayey or saline soils (which absorb radar waves).
4. Magnetic Method: The magnetic method in geophysical exploration measures variations
in Earth's magnetic field to map subsurface structures and identify anomalies, which can
indicate the presence of certain geological features or materials, like ore bodies or faults.
How it Works:
• Measuring Magnetic Anomalies:
The magnetic method relies on the fact that different rocks and materials have varying
magnetic properties (susceptibility). Subsurface features with high magnetic susceptibility,
like iron-rich rocks or ore deposits, can cause localized distortions or anomalies in the
Earth's magnetic field.
• Passive Method:
It's a passive method, meaning it measures the naturally occurring magnetic field rather
than generating artificial signals.
• Instrumentation:
Magnetometers are used to measure the magnetic field at various locations, either on the
ground, from the air (using aircraft or drones), or even from space.
• Data Interpretation:
The collected magnetic data is then analyzed to identify and map the location, shape, and
extent of magnetic anomalies.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
➤ Principle:
• Measures variations in Earth's magnetic field caused by subsurface structures.
• Igneous and metamorphic rocks show strong anomalies; sedimentary formations (often aquifers)
show weak responses.
➤ Applications:
• Locating buried basalt traps or dykes.
• Indirectly infers potential aquifer zones.
• More useful in regional surveys than for detailed groundwater exploration.
6. Gravity Method: The gravity method in geophysics measures variations in Earth's
gravitational field to determine subsurface density variations, aiding in geological
mapping, resource exploration, and structural analysis.
• Measurement:
Portable instruments called gravimeters or gravity meters measure these variations in the
Earth's gravity field.
• Data Interpretation:
By analyzing the measured gravity data, geophysicists can infer subsurface density
distributions, which can help identify geological structures, locate mineral deposits, and
assess the depth of bedrock.
• Applications:
• Geological Mapping: Helps in mapping subsurface geology, identifying faults, and
locating buried structures.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Resource Exploration: Used to locate hydrocarbon deposits, ore bodies, and other
resources.
• Engineering and Environmental Studies: Can be used to identify voids, assess ground
stability, and characterize subsurface conditions.
• Corrections:
Gravity measurements are subject to various corrections, including those for altitude,
topography, tides, and instrument drift.
• Limitations:
The interpretation of gravity data can be limited by ambiguity, as similar gravity anomalies
can be caused by different subsurface density distributions.
• Technological Advancements:
Gravimeters have improved in accuracy and portability, and the advent of GPS has led to
better quality marine and airborne gravity data
➤ Principle:
• Measures variations in gravitational pull due to density differences in underground layers.
• Water-bearing formations may show lower density than dry rock layers.
➤ Applications:
• Mapping regional geological structures like basins or faults.
• Used in combination with other methods for better accuracy.
6. Electromagnetic (EM) Method: Electromagnetic (EM) methods are geophysical techniques that
use electromagnetic induction to map subsurface electrical properties, like conductivity, by inducing
currents in the ground and measuring the resulting electromagnetic fields.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
How it Works:
• Electromagnetic Induction:
EM methods rely on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where a changing magnetic
field (primary field) induces electrical currents (eddy currents) in conductive materials
within the subsurface.
• Transmitter and Receiver:
A transmitter generates a time-varying magnetic field, and a receiver measures the resulting
electromagnetic field, which includes the secondary field generated by the induced
currents.
• Measuring Subsurface Conductivity:
The strength and characteristics of the secondary field are related to the electrical
conductivity of the subsurface materials, allowing geophysicists to map variations in
conductivity.
➤ Principle:
• Uses induced electromagnetic fields to detect subsurface conductivity.
• Conductive layers (like moist soils or saline water) produce distinct EM responses.
➤ Applications:
• Locating freshwater vs. saline aquifers.
• Mapping lateral extent of aquifers.
• EM methods are used for various applications, including mineral exploration, groundwater
studies, environmental site characterization, and mapping subsurface geology.
Comparison Table
Method Depth Range Best Use Limitations
Electrical
Up to 200 m Depth of water table, aquifer zones Affected by dry, rocky ground
Resistivity
Seismic Refraction Up to 100 m Bedrock mapping, fault detection Needs good energy coupling
Shallow water table, void
GPR Up to 30 m Not suitable for clay/saline soils
detection
Deep (>100
Magnetic Structural mapping, dykes, traps Indirect groundwater info
m)
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
Method Depth Range Best Use Limitations
Deep (>100 Low resolution, affected by
Gravity Basin mapping
m) terrain
Fresh vs. saline water, lateral
Electromagnetic Up to 100 m Affected by power lines, noise
mapping
Geophysical surveys provide a cost-effective, fast, and eco-friendly way to explore groundwater without
drilling. Among all, the Electrical Resistivity Method is the most popular and reliable for detecting
aquifers. For best results, multiple methods are often combined based on the geological setting and depth
of interest.
PRESENT LAW REGARDING WATER MANAGEMENT:
Effective water management is essential to ensure sustainable use, protection of resources, and equitable
distribution of water. Several laws and policies are enforced by the government to regulate the extraction,
usage, conservation, and pollution of water resources. The primary water management laws in India
include the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Inter-State River Water Disputes
Act, 1956, and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, with amendments and policies like the National
Water Policy, 2012, and state-level regulations also playing a crucial role.
In India, the primary laws governing water management include the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, and the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986, along with state-level legislation and policies.
Here’s an overview of the major existing laws related to Water Management in India (similar laws exist
in other countries too):
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
1. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
• Purpose: To provide a framework for the protection and improvement of the environment,
including water bodies. Enacted after the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, this Act is considered the
“umbrella legislation” for environmental protection in India.
• It empowers the Central Government to take strict measures to protect and improve the
environment, including air, water, and land.
Key Features: Sets standards for emissions and effluents.
• Prohibits the handling of hazardous substances without approval.
• Grants power to the government to close or regulate any industry violating pollution norms.
Water-specific focus:
• It restricts the discharge of untreated sewage and industrial waste into rivers and groundwater.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• It mandates environmental impact assessments (EIA) for new projects affecting water
resources.
Provisions: Restricts discharge of pollutants into water sources.
o Authorizes setting standards for water quality.
o Empowers the government to take measures to protect lakes, rivers, and groundwater.
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
• Purpose: To prevent and control water pollution and to maintain or restore the wholesomeness of
water. irst major legislation to directly deal with water pollution.
Aim: Prevent and control pollution of rivers, lakes, groundwater, and other water bodies.
Key Features: Establishes Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs).
• Industries must obtain a “Consent to Establish” and “Consent to Operate” before discharging
waste.
• Sets water quality standards and discharge limits.
• Provides powers to boards to inspect industries, collect samples, and initiate legal action.
• Penalties for violation include heavy fines and imprisonment.
• Focus on effluent treatment plants (ETPs) to clean wastewater before discharge.
Provisions: Establishes Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB and SPCB).
o Requires industries to obtain consent before discharging effluents into water bodies.
o Penalizes individuals or organizations for non-compliance.
3. The Groundwater Regulation Acts (State-specific laws)
• Different Indian states like Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Gujarat have their own Groundwater
Regulation and Management Acts. Overview:
• Groundwater extraction is mostly governed by individual state laws, since groundwater falls
under the "State List" of the Constitution.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
Key Features:
• Many states have set up Groundwater Authorities.
• Require permissions or registrations for drilling borewells.
• Special control in over-exploited, critical, and semi-critical areas (areas where groundwater
levels are dangerously low).
• Compulsory installation of water meters on large wells.
• Promotion of artificial recharge techniques like percolation ponds, check dams, etc.
Example:
• Tamil Nadu Groundwater (Development and Management) Act
• Maharashtra Groundwater (Development and Management) Act
Purpose: To regulate groundwater extraction to prevent over-exploitation.
Provisions: Requires permission for drilling new wells/borewells.
o Restrictions on groundwater extraction in over-exploited zones.
o Promotion of rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge.
4. National Water Policy (Latest 2012 Version)
• Purpose: To guide planning and management of water resources across the country.
Highlights: Water to be treated as an economic good to promote conservation.
o Emphasis on water recycling and reuse.
o Integration of groundwater and surface water management.
o Participation of local communities in water management.
The Easement Act, 1882 A guiding policy document, not a law, but sets out principles for water
resource planning and management across the country.
Key Features: Recognizes water as a scarce and economic resource.
• Priority of water usage: Drinking > Irrigation > Industry > Ecology.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Encourages conjunctive use of surface and groundwater.
• Calls for water pricing based on user-pays principle.
• Promotes reuse and recycling of water in industries and urban settings.
• Stresses on the need for climate-resilient water management.
• Purpose: Grants rights to landowners to access groundwater beneath their land.
Key Point: Historically led to uncontrolled private extraction of groundwater.
o Modern reforms seek to regulate this under public trust doctrines.
5. The River Boards Act, 1956: Provides a framework for interstate cooperation in
managing rivers.
Key Features:
• Central Government can create a River Board on the request of state governments.
• Boards are supposed to advise on development, conservation, and management of interstate river
waters.
• Focus on preventing conflicts between states over river water sharing.
• However, few river boards have been constituted till now (main river water sharing is managed
by tribunals).
Example:
• Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal
• Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal
• Purpose: Provides for the establishment of River Boards for the regulation and development of
inter-state rivers and river valleys.
• Importance: Helps in managing disputes between states regarding water sharing.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
6. The Dam Safety Act, 2021
Overview: A very recent law focusing on ensuring the structural and operational safety of
dams across India.
Key Features: Applies to specified dams over a certain height and storage capacity.
• Creation of National Committee on Dam Safety and State Dam Safety Organizations (SDSO).
• Mandatory periodic inspection, maintenance, and repairs of dams.
• Preparation of Emergency Action Plans for dam failure scenarios.
• Responsibility fixed on owners/operators of dams for ensuring their safety.
• Purpose: Ensures the safe functioning of dams to avoid disasters that could impact water
management.
Provisions: Regular inspections and maintenance.
o Establishes national and state-level dam safety authorities.
Other Important Initiatives: Jal Shakti Abhiyan (Government Campaign for water conservation).
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (Focused on groundwater management).
• Namami Gange Programme (For cleaning and conserving the Ganga River).
Law/Policy Main Purpose Highlights
Environment Act, 1986 Environmental protection Regulates discharge of pollutants
Water Act, 1974 Water pollution control CPCB/SPCB regulation, effluent standards
Groundwater Acts Groundwater regulation Permits for wells, recharge promotion
National Water Policy, 2012 Policy guidance Water as economic good, sustainable use
Easement Act, 1882 Groundwater ownership rights Unregulated private extraction (old law)
River Boards Act, 1956 Interstate water management River development and conflict resolution
Dam Safety Act, 2021 Dam maintenance and safety National and State safety authorities
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
7. Ground Water law
The existing ground water law in India is close to inappropriate. This is of major significance as the use
of ground water determines the availability of water for tanks, wells and many other minor irrigation
systems. Traditionally ground water has been treated as a chattel to land property, where the access is to
private land owners alone. Such property laws do not relate to hydrological, ecological or equity concerns
at all. Few attempts of less significance have been made in the past at the state level. In the state of Gujarat
groundwater rules have been reframed by amending the Bombay irrigation Act. Tamil Nadu water Board
had framed certain model water Bills. But these arbitrary experimentations have proved grossly
inadequate for the larger private and common property legal regimes, nor do they take into account the
ecological and social diversities in which the laws needs to operate. The need for conjunctive use and
integration of groundwater and surface water laws have also been conveniently ignored by the state
governments. In the view of the author, there is an urgent need to systematically explore the legal
alternatives for integrated set of laws that will incorporate both ecological and social diversity as well as
problems related to the inter-relationship between ground water and surface water use. Moreover, saccess
to ground water is highly inequitable, since it depends upon land ownership and economic capacity to
draw.
8. Indian National Water Policy
While water remains one of the most abundant resources on earth, but less than 1 percent of the total
supply is reliably available for human consumption. However, population growth, irrigation development
and industrialisation over the past century have come at a cost. The water sector must adapt to changing
climatic conditions by seeking alternative water resources and developing improved water management
approaches that will reduce pressure on already stressed systems.
The Need for a National Water Policy
Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset Planning and
development of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives. It has been estimated that
out of the total precipitation of around 400 million hectare meters in the country, the surface water
availability is about 178 million hectare meters. Out of this about 50% can be put to beneficial use because
of topographical and other constraints. In addition there is a ground water potential of about 42 million
hectare meters. The availability of water is highly uneven in both space and time. Precipitation is confined
to only about three of four months in the year and varies from 10 cm in the western parts of Rajasthan to
over 1000 cm at Cherrapunji in Meghalaya. Further, water does not respect state boundaries. Not merely
rivers but even underground aquifers often cut across state boundaries. Water as a resources in one and
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
indivisible : rainfall, river waters, surface ponds and lakes and ground water are al part of one system,
water is also a part of larger ecological system.
Floods and drought affected vast areas of the country, transcending state boundaries. A third of the country
is drought prone. Floods affect an average area of around 9 million hectares per year. According to the
National Commission on floods, the area susceptible to floods is around 40 million hectares. The approach
to the management of drought and floods has to be coordinated and guided at the national level. Even the
planning and implementation of individual irrigation or multi purpose projects, though done at the state
level, involve a number of aspects and issues such as environmental protection, rehabilitation of project-
affected people and livestock, public health consequences of water impoundment, dam safety, etc. On
these matter common approaches and weaknesses have affected a large number of projects all over the
country.. There have been substantial time and cost overruns on projects. In some irrigation commands,
problems of water logging and soil salinity have emerged, leading to the degradation of good agricultural
land. There are also complex problems of equity and social justice in regard to water distribution.
Importance of Water Management Laws
• Prevents water scarcity and droughts.
• Ensures safe and clean drinking water.
• Balances agricultural, industrial, and domestic needs.
• Protects aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Reduces conflict over water resources.
The present laws on water management are evolving toward integrated, sustainable, and community-
based management. Enforcement of these laws and active participation from citizens are vital for the
future availability of clean water. Water management laws today aim to balance the protection of water
resources, economic development, and sustainability. The focus is shifting from merely using water to
managing and conserving it for future generations.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
WATER FOOTPRINTS
A water footprint measures the total volume of freshwater used, directly and indirectly, to produce a
product or service. It's categorized into three types: green (rainwater used for agriculture), blue (surface
and groundwater), and grey (freshwater needed to dilute pollutants).
A Water Footprint measures the total volume of freshwater used to produce goods and services consumed
by an individual, community, or business.
It is a key indicator of how human activities put pressure on water resources.
• Introduced by Professor Arjen Hoekstra in 2002.
• It connects consumption to water use across the entire supply chain.
• Helps in promoting sustainable water management at global, national, and local levels.
"The Water Footprint is the amount of fresh water used (directly and indirectly) to produce the goods and
services consumed."
Importance of Water Footprint:
• Highlights the hidden water use behind products (e.g., making a T-shirt consumes ~2,700 liters of
water!).
• Helps consumers, companies, and governments become more water-conscious.
• Promotes efficient water use in agriculture, industry, and households.
• Assists in addressing water scarcity and pollution issues.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
TYPES OF WATER FOOTPRINTS:
The Water Footprint is categorized into three major types:
1. Blue Water Footprint: Refers to surface and groundwater (rivers, lakes, aquifers) that is consumed
and not returned to the source. The blue water footprint represents the volume of freshwater (from surface
and groundwater) consumed during the production of goods and services, including evaporation,
incorporation into products, or water diverted from one location and returned to another or at a different
time.
The blue water footprint quantifies the amount of freshwater withdrawn from rivers, lakes, aquifers, and
other surface and groundwater sources, which is then either evaporated, used in manufacturing,
incorporated into a product, or returned to a different location or time.
Mainly used for:
• Irrigation in agriculture.
• Industrial production.
• Domestic purposes.
Example:
• Agriculture: Irrigation water used to grow crops contributes significantly to the blue water
footprint.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Industry: Water used in manufacturing processes, cooling, and other industrial activities also
contributes to the blue water footprint.
• Domestic use: Water used for household activities like washing, cooking, and sanitation also
contributes to the blue water footprint.
• Water used for growing wheat by irrigation.
• Water used in textile industries.
Characteristics:
• . Measures extracted water.
• Related to quantity of water consumption
Sustainability Assessment:
A blue water footprint is considered unsustainable when it exceeds the available renewable blue water
resources, leading to environmental flow violations and groundwater depletion. According to
[Link], blue water footprint is unsustainable when it exceeds the available renewable blue
water, thereby violating the environmental flow standard and depleting groundwater.
2. Green Water Footprint: Refers to rainwater stored in the soil and used directly by plants through
evapotranspiration. The green water footprint refers to the volume of rainwater consumed in a production
process, particularly relevant in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry, encompassing the total rainwater
evapotranspiration from fields and plantations.
Green water footprint is the amount of water from precipitation (rain or snow) that is stored in the root
zone of the soil and is either evaporated, transpired, or incorporated by plants.
It's especially important for understanding the water consumption of agricultural, horticultural, and
forestry products.
Mostly applies to:
• Agriculture (especially rainfed crops).
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Forestry.
Example: This includes the water used by crops, trees, and other vegetation to grow and produce
goods.
• Water used for growing crops like cotton or maize using rainfall alone.
Characteristics:
• Measures soil moisture use.
• Important for crop production without irrigation.
Sustainability Assessment:
• Sustainable Agriculture: Understanding the green water footprint helps in developing
sustainable agricultural practices, such as optimizing water use and promoting rainwater
harvesting.
• Water Resource Management: It's crucial for effectively managing water resources, especially
in regions where rainfall is limited.
• Food Security: Ensuring sustainable use of green water resources is vital for food security, as
agriculture relies heavily on rainwater.
Grey Water Footprint: Refers to the volume of freshwater required to assimilate pollutants to meet
specific water quality standards. The grey water footprint (GWF) measures the amount of fresh water
needed to assimilate pollutants and maintain water quality standards, serving as an indicator of water
resource appropriation through pollution.
It accounts for:
• Water polluted through agricultural runoff (fertilizers, pesticides).
• Industrial discharges.
• Domestic sewage.
• The grey water footprint is the volume of fresh water required to dilute pollutants to a level that
meets agreed-upon water quality standards.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
Focus:It focuses on the impact of pollution on water resources, rather than just water
consumption.
Assessing Water Quality:It helps assess the sustainable, efficient, and equitable use of water
resources by quantifying the water needed for pollution assimilation.
Pollution Sources:It considers various sources of pollution, including industrial discharges,
agricultural runoff, and untreated wastewater.
How it's calculated:
Pollutant Load: The calculation involves determining the amount of pollutants discharged into a
water body.
Water Quality Standards: It compares the pollutant load with the natural background
concentration and existing water quality standards.
Freshwater Volume: The grey water footprint is the volume of freshwater required to dilute the
pollutant load to meet the water quality standards.
Example: The grey water footprint can be calculated for specific products (e.g., food, clothing),
industries (e.g., agriculture, manufacturing), or regions.
• Water needed to dilute nitrogen fertilizer runoff from a field so that the river remains within safe
pollution limits.
Characteristics:
• Measures pollution and degradation of water quality.
• Focuses on water contamination rather than consumption.
Sustainability Assessment: The Grey Water Footprint (GWF) is a sustainability assessment tool
that measures the volume of freshwater needed to assimilate pollutants to meet water quality
standards, providing insight into water resource appropriation through pollution.
By comparing the grey water footprint with the available assimilation capacity, one can measure
the water pollution level and assess whether water quality standards are being violated.
Summary
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
Type Source Focus Area Examples
Surface and
Blue Water extraction and consumption Irrigation, industrial processes
Groundwater
Rainwater (soil Rainfed agriculture, natural
Green Growing crops without irrigation
moisture) vegetation
Runoff from fertilizers, industrial
Grey Polluted Water Water needed to dilute pollutants
waste
Diagram:
Applications of Water Footprint Analysis:
• Agriculture:
Identify crops that require less water (e.g., shifting from rice to millets in dry regions).
• Industries:
Designing production processes that consume less water and create less pollution.
• Policy Making:
Governments can draft water policies based on water availability and consumption patterns.
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING BV654A
• Consumer Awareness:
Encouraging people to buy products that have a lower water footprint.
Real-World Water Footprint Examples:
Product Approximate Water Footprint
1 kg of Beef ~15,400 liters
1 kg of Rice ~2,500 liters
1 Cotton Shirt ~2,700 liters
1 Cup of Coffee ~140 liters
Dhanashree N Nerlikar, Dept of Civil Engineering. VVIT Bangalore