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BASIC SCIENCE
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Table of Contents

1. Units and Measurement 5

2. Laws of Motion 7

3. Gravitation 9

4. Force and Pressure 13

5. Work, Energy and Power 17

6. Sound 21

7. Light: Reflection and Refraction 27

8. Current Electricity 33

9. Magnetism 39

10. Stars and Our Solar System 41

11. Electromagnetic Spectrum 47

12. Concepts of Matter 53

13. Chemical Classification of Matter 59

14. Atom and Its Structure 65

15. Periodic Table 73

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16. Minerals and Ores 79

17. Carbon and Its Compounds 83

18. Acid, Base and Salts 89

19. Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry 95

20. Biodiversity 101

21. Classification of Plants 105

22. Classification of Animal 109

23. Cell: Building Block of Life 115

24. Tissue and Types of Tissues 121

25. Blood Circulatory System 125

26. Excretory System 131

27. Coordination in Humans 135

28. Human Skeletal System 141

29. Nutrition 145

30. Diseases 151

31. Reproductive System 163

32. Evolution 173

33. Biotechnology 177

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1 Units and Measurement

Introduction abbreviated as SI, is the unit system that is

now globally recognised for measurement.
Any physical quantity is quantified by comparing
it to a universally recognised, arbitrarily • The General Conference on Weights and
determined reference standard known as a unit. Measures devised and endorsed the SI
in 1971 for worldwide use in scientific,
Fundamental Units & Derived Units
• The units for basic or base quantities are technical, industrial, and commercial
referred to as fundamental or base units. All operations, providing a standard framework
additional physical quantities may be stated of symbols, units, and abbreviations.
in terms of combinations of the basic units. Recent changes in redefining kilogram:
For instance, kilogramme, metre, and so on. • For more than a century, Le Grande K, or Big
• The units used to express the derived K, a single hunk of platinum and iridium has
numbers are referred to as derived units. characterised mass around the world.
For example, speed, energy, etc. • Despite being contained in a jar, the
The International System of Units platinum-iridium cylinder was losing
• The System International d’Unites (French mass. It has decreased in size by around
meaning International System of Units), 50 micrograms during the previous several

Table 1.1 SI base Quantities

Units and Measurement 5

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decades. Even though the difference in • To maintain the kilogram’s constant value,
weight is minute; it is nevertheless a shift the kilogram’s measuring device will be
that may have a tremendous effect on changed from Le Grand K to a Kibble
precise fields such as medicine. balance.
• At the 26th General Conference on Institution responsible in India
Weights and Measures in Versailles, France, • India’s measurement standards laboratory
delegates from more than 60 countries is situated in New Delhi at the CSIR-National
agreed to redefine the kilogramme. Rather Physical Laboratory of India.
than employing this physical material as • It is responsible for the maintenance of SI
the unit’s foundation, Planck’s constant, a unit standards in India and the calibration of
fundamental property of physics, would be national weights and measures standards.
employed instead.
• Indian reference materials, sometimes
The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit referred to as Bhartiya Nirdeshak Dravya
of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed (BND), are NPL-established reference
numerical value of the Planck constant h materials that are traceable to the National
to be 6.626 070 15 x 10-34 when expressed Standards.
in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 • BND-4201 is India’s first gold standard
s-1, where the metre and the second are material with a purity of ‘9999.’ (gold that is
defined in terms of c and Δvcs. 99.99 percent pure with impurities of only
100 parts per million).

6 Units and Measurement

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2 Laws of Motion

Motion
Motion is a process or phenomenon through
which an object’s location changes over time.
A moving body’s velocity fluctuates according
to the direction of the force acting on it.
1st law of motion: Law of inertia Here, ‘k’ is the constant of proportionality.
• Newton’s first law states that A body at • Additionally, it establishes a relationship
rest or moving in a straight path at a steady between force and acceleration.
pace will stay at rest or continue to move
• For instance, when fielding a fast-moving
unless acted upon by an external force
cricket ball, a fielder slides his hands
• Example: When a moving bus comes to an backwards to lengthen the amount of time
abrupt stop, the passengers on board fall required to achieve zero velocity and so
forward. reduce force.
Inertia is a physical attribute of objects which Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion: Law of action and
refers to the tendency of objects to remain reaction
stationary or to continue moving until a force • According to this rule, when two bodies
is applied. come in contact; they produce forces of
2nd Law of Motion equal magnitude and direction.
• Newton’s second law of motion shows that
• It’s especially useful for resolving and
force and momentum change are linked.
analysing situations in which all forces are
• It states that the acceleration of an object
equal and travelling at the same speed,
is dependent upon two variables - the net
although it may be applied to anything
force acting upon the object and the mass
of the object. moving equally or swiftly.

• The direction in which the body’s • For example, when a book is on a table, it
momentum changes are determined by the puts down a force on the table that is equal
direction of the net external force acting on to its weight. Further, according to the third
it. law, the table exerts the same force on the
• if p denotes a body’s change in momentum book, which is also equal to the weight of
over time t d the book.

Laws of Motion 7
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3 Gravitation

Introduction • G is also known as the Universal Gravitational

Constant.
A force known as gravitational force attracts
everything in the cosmos to every other item. • Numerous essential occurrences in the
cosmos are explained by the universal law
Centripetal Force of gravity
• Whenever an item is travelling in a circular ○ The Earth’s gravitational pull
motion, it is subjected to the influence ○ Why does the moon continue to revolve
of a force known as Centripetal Force, in a circular orbit around the earth and
which maintains the object moving in a the sun?
circular motion. ○ Why are all planets revolving around
• For Example, in order for the Moon the sun?
to move around the Earth, the Earth’s ○ The effect of the sun and moon on
centripetal force is at work. tides.
• The acceleration caused by gravity is
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
indicated by the symbol ‘g’.
• According to the universal law of gravity, all
• ‘g’ is a constant that is independent of the
objects are attracted to one another by a
mass of an item falling freely under gravity.
force.
• The value of g varies somewhat across
• This force is equal to the product of the
locations. g is considered to be 9.8 m/s2 for
masses of the two objects multiplied by
one. all practical reasons.

• The force between them is inversely • On the moon, the acceleration due to gravity
proportional to the square of their distance. is around 1/6th that on the earth, whereas
on the sun, it is roughly 27 times that on the
Consider the illustration below. It depicts the planet.
attraction between two bodies with masses of
• Among all the planets, the acceleration due
m1 and m2 that are separated by ‘d’.
to gravity is minimum on Mercury.
When a body is at a distance ‘r’ from the centre
of the earth, then
R = radius of the earth = 6.38 x 106 m.
M = mass of the earth = 6.4 x 1024 kg.

The value of ‘g’ varies in different places on

Fig.3.1: Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
the planet:
As a result, we get the following constant G: • From the equation g = GM/r2, it can be
deduced that the value of ‘g’ is proportional
to the object’s distance from the earth’s
• The above equation is a mathematical centre.
version of Newton’s Law of Universal • This is because the earth is not a completely
Gravitation. round sphere. Regardless, it is squeezed at
• Value of G = 6.673 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 the poles and expanded near the equator.

Gravitation 9
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• Thus, ‘g’ is larger near the poles and less with a 90-degree inclination to the earth’s
at the equator. However, for the sake of equatorial plane.
simplicity, we maintain a constant value for • Height from the surface of earth = 880 km
‘g’ throughout. • Orbital velocity = 8 km / s
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion • Time period = 84 min
• Law of the orbit: Each planet orbits the Sun • These satellites are used for a variety of
is in an elliptical orbit, with the sun at its purposes, including weather forecasting,
centre. observing the upper atmosphere, mapping,
• Law of area: The radius vector from the and so forth.
sun to a planet sweeps out equal regions • The PSLV series of satellites are India’s
in identical time intervals, implying that the polar satellites.
planet’s areal velocity around the sun is
Orbital velocity: The minimum velocity required
constant.
for a satellite to enter a given orbit around the
• Law of period: The square of the planet’s
earth is its orbital velocity.
rotation around the Sun is precisely
proportionate to its elliptical orbit’s cube Escape velocity: The escape velocity of a body is
semi-major axis. the least velocity at which it must be propelled
vertically upward from the earth’s surface in
Satellite
order to simply cross the earth’s gravitational
• A satellite is a celestial object that orbits a field and never return.
planet.
• The escape velocity of a body is independent
• Natural satellites are celestial bodies orb- of its mass, size, and form, as well as the
iting the planet that was not manufactured direction of projection of the body or item.
by humans. As an illustration, consider the On Earth, the escape velocity is around
moon. 11.2 kilometres per second.
• Artificial satellites are celestial objects
Weightlessness
produced by humans and sent into orbit
around the earth for a variety of reasons. It is a condition in which the body’s effective
weight becomes zero.
Geostationary or Parking Satellites
• A geostationary or parked satellite is one Weightlessness is accomplished by:
that seems to an observer on Earth to be • While freely falling under gravity.
fixed in place at a given altitude. • Enclosing oneself in a satellite or spaceship.
• Height from surface of the earth = • At the earth’s centre.
36000 km • When a body or object is lying in a freely
• Time period = 24 h falling lift.
• Orbital velocity = 3.1 km/s What is Free Fall?
• These satellites travel in equatorial orbits • The object is presumed to be in free fall
around the world. since it is falling into the ground owing to
• These satellites are utilised for the purpose gravity and without being affected by any
of communication. INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C other factor.
are India’s geostationary satellites. • Air resistance affects even free-falling
objects.
Polar Satellites
• These are the satellites that circle the • g = 9.8 m/s2 is also referred to as the Free-
planet in polar orbits. A polar orbit is one fall Acceleration.

10 Gravitation
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Mass Weight

The mass of an object is the total The weight of an object or person is the gravitational
quantity of material contained inside it. force that pulls it toward the earth.

It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.

Because mass is determined by inertia, The weight of an item varies according to the earth’s
an item’s mass is constantly constant. gravitational forces at different places.

Mass can never be zero. There may be no weight when there is no gravitational
force.

Denoted as: m Denoted as W

F = mg
where m = mass of the object
a = acceleration due to gravity
Similarly, W is force, so
W = mg

SI Unit: kg SI unit: N

Table 3.1: Difference Between Mass and Weight

Gravitation 11
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4 Force and Pressure

Force and size is determined by the force exerted

and the object’s stiffness.
• Force is defined as the application of a pull Types of Forces
or a push to an item. An object’s state can Forces can be categorised into the following
be changed from rest to motion or vice types based on the extent of their interaction
versa by applying a force. with two or more objects:
• Two or more objects must interact with
Contact forces Non-contact forces
each other in order for a force to come
into action.
When two or more When objects do not
Characteristics of forces: objects come into come into contact with
• The net resultant force on an object is equal contact with each each other but can
to the sum of two forces acting in the same other, these kinds of exert a force on each
direction. forces are applied. other, these types of
• The difference between two forces acting forces are applied.
in opposite directions is the net resultant
force. The magnitude of a force defines its Example: Frictional Example:
strength. Force, Muscular Electrostatic Force,
• Every force always has a direction in which Force. Magnetic Force,
it is applied and a measure of its strength Gravitational Force.
or magnitude. Table 4.1
• When the magnitude or direction of a force Contact forces
is changed, the effects of the force may • Muscular force: The force that comes into
also change.
play as a result of the action of muscles is
• The net force acting on an item is used to known as muscular force. For instance: In
determine the combined impact of many
order to walk, humans use muscular force.
applied forces.
• Frictional force: The force exerted by the
• If two forces operating in opposing directions
surface over an object as it passes over it is
have similar magnitudes, the net force
known as frictional force. The following are
exerted on the item will be zero (strength).
the characteristics of friction force:
• Force may alter an object’s location, size,
and form. ○ Frictional force always operates in the
direction as opposed to the direction
F= m*a of motion of the item.
○ E.g., when we rub our hands, heat is
produced as a result of friction between
F = Force
our hands.
m = mass of object
a = acceleration

Fig. 4.1 Calculating the force acting upon

an object
Force can even change the shape of an object
An object’s shape may alter when a force is Fig.4.2 Force of Friction acting upon a moving object
applied to it. The effect on the object’s shape

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• Advantages of friction Non-Contact Forces

○ The friction created by the soles of • Magnetic force: Magnetic force is the force
your shoes rubbing against the ground exerted by any magnetic object.
allows us to move. Walking or running ○ Magnetic poles that are identical repel
would have been unlikely if there had each other or push each other further
been no friction. away.
○ Friction allows you to write with a pen ○ In addition, opposite magnetic poles
on a page or chalk on a blackboard. are often attracted to each other,
○ Buildings can only be constructed that is, they pull each other towards
due to the frictional force of various themselves.
building materials. You couldn’t put a
nail in the wall without friction.
○ Car tyres are treaded to increase
friction between the tyres and the
ground surface. As a result, the tyres
have a greater grip on the ground. The
breaks applied in automobiles also
work only because of friction.
• Friction’s Disadvantages:
○ Friction wastes a lot of energy in the
form of heat, which induces wear and
tear on a machine’s moving parts.
Friction decreases machine efficiency
by wasting a significant amount of
energy in overcoming friction. However,
placing a suitable lubricant between Fig.4.4 Magnetic Force
the moving parts of a machine will
improve its performance. • Electrostatic force: It is the force exerted
○ Ball bearings are utilised between the by a charged particle.
moving parts of most machines to o Opposite charges often attract, and the
minimise friction. When a ball bearing same charges repel each other.
is used, sliding friction is replaced with
rolling friction.
○ Friction between the moving parts is
minimised because rolling friction is
lower than sliding friction.
Fig.4.5 Electrostatic Forces
○ Friction tears out the soles of shoes as well.
• Air resistance: Air resistance is the force • Gravitational force: The earth’s gravitational
experienced by an item when it travels or force is an attractive force that it exerts on
glides through the air. all objects.
Pressure
• Pressure refers to the force acting on a unit
area.
• Pascal (Pa) or N/m2 is the SI unit of
pressure.

Fig.4.3 Air Resistance Experienced by Aeroplane

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Fig.4.9 Pressure applied by gases on the walls of a

container

Atmospheric Pressure
Fig.4.6 Relation between Force, • The earth’s atmosphere is surrounded by a
Pressure and Area layer of gases. The pressure exerted on the
earth by the air in the atmosphere is known
as atmospheric pressure.
• At sea level, air pressure is equal to around
1013.25 Pascal.
• As we get closer to the Earth’s surface, the
Fig.4.7 Calculating pressure for Various Areas air pressure keeps rising.
• The pressure exerted by liquids and gases
○ Liquids exert pressure on the
container’s walls.
○ The amount of pressure a liquid exerts
on the container’s bottom is dependent
upon the height of the liquid in the
container.
○ The liquid exerts equal pressure on
various points on the container’s walls
having the same depth.

Fig.4.10 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air in a

column of unit area
• Higher altitudes, where the air pressure is
lower than at the Earth’s surface, can cause
nose bleeding (low altitudes). This is due to the
fact that our blood pressure is currently higher
than the air pressure outside our bodies.
Fig.4.8 Pressure Exerted by Liquids
Thrust and Pressure
○ Likewise, gases, on the other hand,
Thrust
also, exert pressure on the container
• Thrust is a perpendicular force.
walls. Higher-kinetic-energy molecules
• It is a vector quantity that is comparable to
collide with large-force walls, putting
the amount of force exerted on an item.
pressure on the container’s walls.

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Pressure Archimedes Principle

• The force that acts per unit area of the • When an item is submerged in a liquid
object is pressure. (completely or partly), the liquid exerts an
• It is the thrust per unit area. upward pull on the object. The size of such
• Pressure is denoted by ‘P’ force is determined by the weight of the
liquid displaced by the item.
• P = thrust/ area = force/ area = F/A
○ The Buoyancy Tank is a kind of tank
• SI unit: N/m2 or Pa (Pascal)
that is seen on submarines. When the
Why do nails have sharp edges? submarine is brought into the water,
As is often known, pressure is inversely the tank is filled, increasing the weight
proportional to area. Pressure decreases as the of the submarine. Similarly, when the
area is greater, and vice versa. Nails with sharp submarine is required to emerge above
edges make it simpler for them to penetrate water, the tank is emptied and the
the wall because they provide more pressure weight of the submarine is lowered,
from a single point. enabling it to rise above the sea.
Buoyancy ○ Ships are much heavier than water
• When an item is immersed in water, the yet have a much larger volume owing
buoyant force or upthrust of the liquid to their distinctive design. Due to the
acts in the opposite direction of gravity. fact that a ship’s volume exceeds its
Additionally, this is referred to as the weight, the water it displaces provides
Buoyancy Force. the upthrust required to float on water.
• It is governed by the density of the fluid. Applications of Archimedes Principle:
• As a consequence, an item will float in water • When determining the relative density.
when the gravitational force is greater than • In the manufacture of lactometers and
the buoyant force. hydrometers.
• Similarly, when gravity exceeds buoyant • In the development of submarines and
force, an item descends into the ocean or ships.
sea. Relative Density
The word “relative density” refers to the
density of anything in comparison to that of
water. Due to the fact that it is a ratio of two
equal amounts, it lacks a unit.

Fig.4.11 Buoyancy

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5 Work, Energy and Power

Work Factors Affecting Work Force

• The term “work” is used to describe the • A force is a physical pull or push that alters
force that drives an item (or be displaced). an object’s velocity and acceleration.
• In the case of a constant force, work is the • It is a vector quantity that takes the
scalar product of the applied force and the magnitude and direction into account.
displacement generated by force. • When no force is applied to an item, no
• While force and displacement are vector labour is done.
values, work lacks direction owing to the Displacement
scalar product of vector mathematics (or • Displacement is the smallest distance
dot product). travelled by an item between its beginning
Examples of Work and finishing positions.
There are several instances of labour in daily • When the displacement in a direction is
life, including the following: zero, the force operating in that direction
• A horse is ploughing a field. is also zero, and so the work done is also
zero.
• a guy is pushing a supermarket cart through
an aisle of a grocery store. The Angle between the Force Vector and the
• a schoolboy is carrying a bag full of books Displacement Vector
on his shoulder. • A force on an item may do three forms of
• a weightlifter hoisting a barbell above his work: positive, negative, and zero.
head. • The displacement of the item determines
the direction of this. Friction generates
What’s Not Work?
negative work when an object travels in the
A waiter might look hardworking if he walks opposite direction of the force applied to it,
about with a tray high over his head and one such as when an item moves forward.
arm supporting it. (He may be perspiring.) • Because the applied force is zero,
The waiter, on the other hand, is not working. work equals 0 when displacement is
True, the waiter is lifting the tray over his head perpendicular to the direction of the applied
and moving it around the room as he moves. force. The work done is positive when an
No movement or displacement occurs when item travels in the same direction as the
the tray is raised by a waiter. “Force must be force.
applied in the displacement direction to induce
displacement.” Work Done Against Gravity
The work done against gravitational force is
Calculating Work
equal to the object’s lifting height multiplied
The basic formula for the calculation of work is
by the weight. The following formula applies to
actually quite simple:
work performed against gravity:
• W=Fxd
W=m×g×h
• The letters “W,” “F,” and “d” denote labour,
force, and displacement, respectively (the (W – Work done, m – object mass, h – the
distance an object travels). height of object lift, and g – gravity acceleration)
• A joule is defined in physics as the kinetic Energy
energy of one kilogramme travelling at one Energy is a physical system’s ability to do work.
metre per second. It is important to keep in mind, however, that

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just because energy exists does not mean it is • Gravitational energy is directly proportional
always usable. to gravity. When a mass or object is placed
Units of energy in a location where gravitational force may
operate on it, gravitational energy is said to
The joule (J) or Newton-metre (N * m) is the SI
unit of energy. The joule is the SI unit of work exist. Gravitational energy is created when
as well. a notebook is placed at a certain height.
• Elastic energy is stored and then released
Types of energy
when an object is briefly bent and returns
Energy comes in different forms that can be
to its original shape. When a rubber band is
divided into two categories.
stretched, it produces elastic energy; yet,
• Potential energy
when it is released, it reverts to its original
• Kinetic energy shape with no elastic energy.
Potential energy Kinetic energy
• The capacity of a physical system to • Kinetic energy, to put it simply, is energy
operate is referred to as “energy.” It’s crucial that is in motion.
to remember, too, that just because energy
• It’s the amount of energy that an object
exists doesn’t necessarily imply it’s usable.
possesses as a consequence of its
• Chemical energy, elastic energy, gravitational
movement. A crawling child, a rolling ball,
energy and nuclear energy are examples of
or a falling ball are all instances of kinetic
different types of energy.
energy-based items.
• Simply said, this is the energy that is in a
• The potential energy of a body diminishes
certain place.
as it falls in height, but the kinetic energy
• When two identically weighted bodies are increases. The following factors influence a
dumped into a sandpit from the same moving body’s kinetic energy (KE):
height, the heavier item penetrates the
o Mass (m) – The higher the mass (for the
sand more than the lighter one. As a result,
same velocity), the higher the kinetic
a bigger body has a greater potential for
energy.
energy.
o Velocity (v) – The higher the velocity (for
• If the body’s weight (W = mg) and height (h)
the same mass), the higher the kinetic
above the ground are the same, then the
energy.
potential energy PE (Ep) equals
Ep = W × h = mgh Forms of kinetic energy
Forms of potential energy The different forms of kinetic energy are:
The forms of potential energy are: • Thermal energy: This is referred to as heat
• Chemical energy is the force that holds the energy. When a substance or body is heated
bonds of a chemical molecule together. (the temperature rises), the molecules and
Molecules are the building blocks of atoms collide and vibrate faster. The term
chemical compounds. It can only be “thermal energy” refers to the quantity of
released following a chemical reaction. For energy produced as a result of this kind
example, chemical energy may be found in of occurrence. For example, heating a pot
the food we eat. of water leads it to boil and creates heat
• Nuclear energy refers to the energy stored energy; similarly, the sun’s heat causes our
in an atom’s nucleus. It is freed when the surroundings to warm.
atom in which it is stored undergoes nuclear • Radiant energy: This is the kind of energy
processes (Nuclear fission or fusion). that propagates over space in the form
Uranium, for example, has a significant of electromagnetic waves. Additionally,
amount of radioactive energy. electromagnetic energy or light is used

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to refer to it. Solar energy is a common The coil attached to the turbine shaft
source of radiant energy. spins in a magnetic field, converting the
• Electrical energy: The amount of electrical kinetic energy of the turbine to electrical
energy required to power a light bulb. Energy energy.
is created in a bulb by the movement of o In today’s houses, an electric bulb
electrons via a wire or route. The flow of converts electrical energy to light, an
electrons is what we refer to as electricity. electric heater translates electrical
• Sound energy: This is a result of the energy to heat, and an electric pump
vibration of objects. When we clap, our converts electrical energy to mechanical
hands together, we produce sound energy; energy.
this sound then travels through the medium o Electric cells convert chemical energy
of air in the form of sound waves until it to electricity, while solar cells convert
reaches our ear. light energy to electricity. The energy
Mechanical energy: inherent in sound is converted to
electrical energy using a microphone.
Mechanical (motion) energy is commonly
confused with kinetic energy; however, it may Power
also be defined as the sum of potential and Power is defined as the rate at which labour is
kinetic energy. As a result, it is sometimes accomplished or energy is transported in a unit of
referred to as a hybrid. When we kick a ball, time. When labour is finished faster or energy is
for example, our leg moves. Our leg carries given in less time, and power is increased.
potential energy that drives us forward when Calculating power
paired with the kinetic action of our leg.
The equation for power is P = W/t
Relation between work and energy • P - power (watts)
• Work and energy have a “directly
• W is the amount of work done (Joules) or
proportional” relationship.
energy (Joules)
• An object’s work is measured by the
• t is the amount of time (seconds)
difference in its kinetic energy.
The law of conservation of energy Units of power
• Energy cannot be generated or destroyed, • Power is equal to energy (joules) divided by
but it may be converted from one form time.
to another, according to the rule of • The SI unit of power is the watt (W) or joule
conservation of energy. per second (J/s).
• To put it another way, the entire energy of • Power is a scalar number due to the fact
an isolated system is conserved. that it has no direction.
Example of conservation of energy • The word “horsepower” is often used to
o The potential energy of water released describe the amount of force produced by
from a dam is transformed into kinetic a machine.
energy. The kinetic energy of water is • A horsepower is a unit of power in the
turned into kinetic energy for turbines. metric system used in the United Kingdom.

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6 Sound

Introduction Characteristics of Sound Wave

From a state of equilibrium, the sound is a • Sound is a kind of energy that is produced
mechanical disturbance that propagates over when air particles vibrate in a pattern known
an elastic medium. as waves. As a result, the sound takes the
shape of a wave.
• The term “vibration” refers to an object’s
back and forth motion.
• As a consequence of the vibrations, a sound
is produced.
• There can be no sound if there is no
vibration.
• Because there is no medium of transmission,
sound cannot travel in a vacuum.
Fig.6.1 Representation of Wave
• Sound is a kind of energy that provides us
• Wave properties should be the beginning with the feeling of hearing.
point for any sound investigation.
• Sound cannot be created or destroyed, but it
• There are two types of waves, each of which may be transformed into another form. When
is characterised by the way in which they you clap, for example, you make a sound.
propagate. This is where muscle energy is transformed
• Transverse to sound energy. This is in accordance with
• Longitudinal the rule of conservation of energy.
Ex. An electric bell converts electrical
energy into sound energy.
• Sound, while passing through the medium,
gets compressed, rarefied, and vibrates
objects to produce compression (C) and
rarefaction (R) (R).
• Compression
o The air in front of a vibrating object
gets compressed and gets pushed by it,
which makes a high-pressure area i.e.,
compression (C). Curves show places
Fig.6.2 Wave motion on a slinky (a) pulse on a slinky,
where there is a lot of pressure and
(b) transverse wave, and (c) longitudinal wave
density. The curve’s crest, which is the
• Transverse wave: The oscillations (medium
top part, shows where these places are.
particles) of a transverse wave are
perpendicular to the wave’s propagation • Rarefaction
direction. Consider a light wave as an o Rarefaction occurs when a vibrating
example. object reverses direction, forming a
• Longitudinal wave: A longitudinal wave low-pressure zone (R). The depressions
travels in the direction of its oscillations or troughs at the curve’s bases are
(particle of the medium). rarefactions or low-pressure, low-density
zones where particles are dispersed.

Sound 21
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Production of sound Frequency = Number of Oscillations/Total

• Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Time =1/T
• The movement of materials causes • It is represented by a Greek letter (Greek
vibration. letter nu).
• Vibration is defined as the rapid movement • The SI unit is Hertz.
of an object in reference to a fixed point. • Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, who laid the
Oscillation is another name for it. groundwork for the future development of
When you pull on a stretched rubber band, it the telephone, telegraph, television, and
vibrates and emits a sound. radio is honoured with the SI unit.
The time period of a wave
• The time period is the amount of time it
takes for a medium particle to complete one
oscillation/vibration. The letter “T” is used to
signify it. The SI unit comes in second.
Pitch
• The pitch of a sound is governed by the
frequency of the sound wave.
Fig.6.3 Amplitude and Wavelength • Pitch is the brain’s interpretation of
Amplitude frequency. Sound pitch is determined by
• Because the height of the wave crest or a vibration frequency (shrillness or flatness).
trough is what determines the amplitude of • High-frequency sounds have a high pitch.
sound waves, the amplitude is defined as • An exceptionally high-pitched sound (e.g.
the difference between the heights of the cat meowing, guitar, female voice). The
crests. The amplitude of a sound wave is higher pitch has greater compressions and
defined as the biggest movement of the rarefactions.
particle that is responsible for the wave’s
• A hoarse/heavy tone (lion cry, boy’s voice).
generation. It is denoted by the letter “A.” The low pitch has fewer compressions and
The metre is the SI unit of measurement. rarefactions.
Wavelength • When a guitar and a flute are played
• It’s the distance a wave travels in the time simultaneously, strange noises result. The
it takes a particle to complete one vibration discrepancy is related to pitch, another
using SHM (Simple Harmonic Motion). sound component.
• It’s the gap between two consecutive Tone and note
troughs or crests. • A tone is a single-frequency, pure sound.
• The distance between two successive • A note is a jumbled sound formed by
compressions or rarefactions are combining many frequencies. It’s an
determined by the wavelength, which amazing sound to hear.
is indicated by the letter n on the graph Loudness
(lambda). It is represented by the metre in • The amplitude of a sound determines its
the International System of Units. loudness.
Frequency • The bigger the amplitude, the greater the
• The frequency of a sound wave is the number particle movement and, as a result, the
of vibrations performed by a particle in one sound volume.
second. • The loudness of a sound is related to the
square of its amplitude.

22 Sound
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• The decibel is the SI unit for determining • The sound’s direction of origin and return
how loud a sound is (dB). are parallel and create equal angles with
• Loudness is the quantity of sound energy the normal of the surface reflecting it.
that enters the ears in a second. Just like light, the sound gets reflected at the
• A sound wave’s perceived loudness or surface of a solid or liquid.
softness is dependent on its size. • Reflection occurs when sound hits a solid
• When we strike something harder, it shakes or liquid surface and bounces back.
and produces a lot of noise. We can make • Hard materials (like mountains and walls)
the tabletop tremble and generate feeble reflect sound better than soft ones (such as
sound waves with very little energy. The fabric, paper, and other things).
sound becomes louder.
Laws of reflection of sound
Speed of sound
Sound follows the same laws of reflection as
• It’s the distance a wave travels in one
light does. There are two laws of reflection of
second.
sound:
• Solids have a faster sound speed than • Incident and reflected sound waves are
liquids have a slower sound speed, and both in the same plane at the point where
gases have the slowest sound speed. they were made.
Relationship between Speed, Frequency and • The angle of the sound wave that comes
Wavelength of Sound in is the same as the angle of the sound
wave that comes out. Because of how the
Wave Velocity= Distance covered/ time taken
wave looks and how many obstructions it
Wave velocity= Frequency x wavelength has, these are the only things that really
Under the same physical circumstances, the matter.
velocity of sound in a particular medium is
Use of reflection of sound
almost constant at all frequencies.
• Megaphones and loudhailers, as well
Light travels faster than sound: as musical instruments like trumpets,
Speed of light in air = 3x 108 m/s shehnais, and horns, are all intended to
• Thunder is only audible when a flash of drive sound in a single direction.
lightning strikes. We see the flash before • A stethoscope is a device that listens to
we hear the sound since light travels at a the sounds made by different areas of the
far faster rate than sound. body. The doctor can hear the patient’s
heartbeat as concentrated rays thanks to
• We see the flash of a gunshot before we
this technology.
hear it, much to how we see the flash of a
gunshot before we hear it. We see the flash • Concert halls, movie theatres, and other
before hearing the sound because light places with curved ceilings often have
travels at such a high pace compared to curved ceilings because they allow sound
sound. to reach all four corners after it’s reflected.
Curved soundboards may also be built
Reflection of Sound
behind the stage to allow sound to reach
• It’s just like how a ball bounces off a wall,
all four corners of the auditorium after it’s
but sound also bounces off things that are
reflected from the stage.
liquids or solids
• Sound, like light, is reflected from a liquid
or solid surface.

Sound 23
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○ Ultrasound scanners use ultrasonic

waves to take pictures of the human
body’s internal organs.
○ Ultrasonography, too, uses ultrasonic
pulses to look at things inside the body.
○ Ultrasound waves are often used to
break up kidney stones, but they may
be employed for a variety of other
purposes as well.
○ Extremely hard-to-reach areas such as
spiral tubes, unusually shaped pieces,
and electronic components are often
Fig.6.4 Soundboard used in a big hall
cleaned using ultrasound technology.
○ In order to check for fractures and
• Sound reflection is used in a lot of faults in metal blocks that have been
products. Examples include megaphones, cut, ultrasound should be employed.
loudspeakers, bulb horns, stethoscopes,
○ Buildings, bridges, machinery, and
hearing aids, soundboards, and so on. scientific equipment, to name a few
Range of hearing of human large creations are made mostly of
• The range of sound that people can perceive metal components.
is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, and it continues
from there.
• Dogs and certain other animals have the
ability to detect frequencies as high as
25 kHz. Children under the age of five,
as well as certain other animals, such as
cats are susceptible to hearing these high
frequencies.
• Infrasound is a kind of noise that has a
frequency less than 20 Hz, also known as
Fig.6.5: Use of Ultrasound
infrasonic noise.
• Infrared sound is produced by elephants ○ The picture of the heart is formed by
and whales, among others. ultrasonic waves reflected from distinct
• A large number of animals get anxious in parts of the heart. ‘Echocardiography’
is the name of the procedure.
the days leading up to a major earthquake.
• Animals may be scared by infrasound, which Echo
is produced by earthquakes and occurs at • It’s called echo when you hear the same
low frequencies. sound over and over in the same place.
• Ultrasound is a kind of sound that occurs When we think about it, the echo stays
when the frequency of the sound exceeds with us for about 0.1 seconds in our minds
20 kHz. • If the sound and its echo are separated by
○ Ultrasound is produced by bats, at least one second, this means that they
porpoises, and dolphins. should be. Reverberation

○ Ultrasonic pulses are also used in Conditions to experience the sound of an echo
echocardiography, which is a medical There are two conditions to experience the
procedure. echo of sound:

24 Sound
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• After 0.1 seconds, the sound must return • Ultrasonic waves are used to figure out the
to the individual. distance, direction, and speed of things
• The reflecting surface must be separated that are under the water.
from the requirements by at least 17.2 • The distance between the submerged item
metres. Temperature is also a factor to and the detector is calculated using the
consider. sound speed in water and the time it takes
for the sound to reach the detector. This
Reverberation
technique is known as echo ranging.
• It’s the ability of a sound to linger after it’s
Human Ear
been made.
• When a sound transmission is reflected Structure of Human Ear:
several times until it reaches a sound wave The auditory nerve helps convert audible frequency
that humans cannot hear, this is referred pressure variations in the air into electric impulses
to as reverberation that pass to the brain via the ear.
• In movie theatres and auditoriums, • The acronym SONAR is Sound Navigation
reverberation is a prevalent issue. and Ranging. In sonar systems, ultrasonic
• As a result, soundproof materials like flip waves are utilised to measure the distance,
board are utilised for the roofing, while direction, and speed of submerged
sound-absorbing textiles are employed for objects.
the hall seats. • A transmitter and a detector are installed
on a boat or ship to create sonar.
Sonar • Ultrasonic waves are used to identify
• People who work for a company called the distance, direction, and speed of
Sound Navigation and Ranging are called submerged objects.
(SONAR). • The distance between the submerged item
• Ultrasonic waves are used in sonar systems and the detector is calculated using the
to figure out the distance, direction, and sound speed in water and the time it takes
speed of objects that are under the water. for the sound to reach the detector.
• A transmitter and a detector are put on a • This technique is known as echo ranging.
boat or ship to make sonar.

Sound 25
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7 Light: Reflection and Refraction

Introduction Types of Reflection

• Diffuse reflection: The reflection is
Light is a sort of energy that causes our eyes
considered dispersed or uneven when all
to experience vision and allows us to perceive
of the parallel rays reflected off a planar
different objects in our environment. The light
surface are not always parallel.
beam might be self-light or reflected light from
an object. • Regular reflection: When light strikes a
smooth, uniform surface (such as a mirror),
Properties of Light
all of the incident rays are completely
• The human eye can perceive light because parallelly reflected.
it is a transverse electromagnetic wave.
• Light follows a straight path. Reflectivity
• Some of the light that strikes a surface
• Experiments on interference and diffraction
is absorbed or transmitted, while the
were the first to demonstrate the wave
remainder is reflected.
character of light.
• The reflectivity of black velvet and powdered
• Light, like other electromagnetic waves,
carbon-coated surfaces vary from less then
can traverse a vacuum.
0.5 per cent to more than 95 per cent for
• Polarisation may be used to represent the newly manufactured magnesium oxide and
transverse character of light. polished silver surfaces. The reflectance of
Reflection of Light white paper is about 80%.
At an interface between two different media, Mirror
reflection is the change in the direction of a It is governed by the rule of reflection. Images
wavefront such that it returns to the medium are created at the point where light rays really
from which it came. connect (real image) or seem to intersect or
Laws of Reflection emanate from (fake image) (virtual image).
• The angle of incidence and reflection are Plane Mirror
always the same.
For light rays striking a plane mirror, the angle
• At the point of incidence, the incident ray,
of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
reflected ray, and normal to the reflecting
Property of image formed by plane mirror:
surface are all in the same plane.
• The image is virtual and cannot be displayed
i = r on a screen.
• The image and the item are the same sizes.
• Inverted laterally
• The image and object are at the same
distance from the plane mirror.
Curved Spherical Mirror
• The spherical mirror is the most frequent
Fig.7.1 Laws of Reflection kind of curved mirror.
• Incident ray: The light ray which strikes a • There are two kinds of curved mirrors:
surface is called the incident ray. those that diverge parallel incident light
• Reflected ray: The incident ray that rays and those that converge parallel
comes back from the surface is called the incident light rays.
reflected ray.

Light: Reflection and Refraction 27

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• A sparkling spoon’s curving surface may • Dentists use it to inspect their patients’
likewise be used as a curved mirror. teeth.
• In solar furnaces, it’s used to concentrate
sunlight (heat).

Convex Mirror
• Convex mirrors are spherical mirrors with
a polished inner surface and a reflecting
surface on the outside side.
• Convex mirrors usually generate virtual,
upright, and smaller pictures.
• Because the incident rays diverge after
reflection, a convex mirror is also known
as a diverging mirror.

Fig.7.2 Curved Spherical Mirror

Concave Mirror
• A concave mirror is a spherical mirror with
a polished outside surface and a reflecting
surface on the inside side.
• The image formed by a concave mirror
is determined by the object’s position in
relation to the focal point and centre of
curvature. If the item is beyond the focus Fig.7.4 Convex Mirror
point, real pictures are created.
• Because it converges the incident rays • Uses of Convex Mirror
after reflection, a concave mirror is also o Magnifying glass
known as a converging mirror. o Car
Concepts related to the spherical mirror
Centre of curvature
• A sphere is formed by the reflecting surface
of a spherical mirror. There is a centre to
this sphere. The spherical mirror’s centre
of curvature is located at this location. The
letter C is used to signify it.
• The centre of curvature of a concave mirror
is located in front of the reflecting surface.
Convex mirrors, on the other hand, have the
Fig.7.3 Concave Mirror
centre of curvature behind the reflecting
Uses of concave mirror surface.
• Used in vehicle headlights, searchlights, Pole
and torches. • The pole of the mirror is the place where the
• Used as a mirror for shaving major axis cuts the mirror.

28 Light: Reflection and Refraction

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on a point in front of the mirror that is

halfway between the pole and the centre
of curvature. This results in a converging
mirror, with the focal point or the focus
being the place where the rays converge.
The focus is about halfway between the
centre and the pole.
• The focal length is the distance along the
major axis between the focus point and the
Fig.7.5 Pole
mirror.
Principal Axis
• The focal length is the distance between
• The mirror’s pole is the point at which the
the pole and the focal point (f). A spherical
primary axis cuts the mirror.
mirror’s focal length is about half its radius
of curvature.
r
f≈
2

An image formed by a mirror

Fig.7.6 Principal Axis

Radius of Curvature
• The Radius of Curvature of a Spherical
Mirror is the radius of the sphere of which
the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror
is a portion. The letter ‘r’ stands for the
radius of curvature of a spherical mirror.
• The radius of curvature, like the centre of
curvature, is located in front of the concave
mirror and behind the convex mirror. It is
not a component of the mirror since it is
located outside of it.

Fig.7.8 An image formed by a concave and

a convex mirror
Fig.7.7 Radius of Curvature • The colour of an item may be described
by supposing that its surfaces reflect
The focus of a concave mirror varied proportions of the incoming
• Light rays parallel to the major axis of light’s various frequency (or wavelength)
a concave mirror seems to converge components.

Light: Reflection and Refraction 29

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• Different combinations of these elements ○ The medium has a larger refractive

form the various visual impressions we index is an optically denser medium
refer to as colour. while the one with a smaller refractive
• It’s worth mentioning that frequency index is called the rarer medium.
and colour does not have a one-to-one
connection. Refractive Index
• The ratio of the speed of light in air to
• While certain small bands of light frequencies
the speed of light in glass determines the
provide colour sensations, such as the
refractive index of glass in relation to air.
rainbow colours from red to violet, many
colours, such as purple and brown, do not • When compared to the speed of light
correlate to any one band of frequencies. in a vacuum, the speed of light in air is
somewhat slower.
Refraction of Light
• Refraction happens when light moves from • In a vacuum, light travels at the fastest
one medium to another. When light travels speed of 3*10^8 m/s. When compared to
from one medium to another, it bends. vacuum, the speed of light in air is just
• The speed of light changes when it passes slightly slower. In water or glass, it shrinks
from one clear material to another, causing dramatically. The refractive index f’s value
refraction.
Some commonly observed phenomena due to
refraction
• Rainbows.
• Light bending in a glass of water.
• Glasses.
• Camera lenses.
• Object dislocation in water.
• Binoculars.

Laws of Refraction Fig.7.9 Refractive Index

• When a ray of light is refracted at an
interface, it follows the following two laws: Dispersion of Light
• Dispersion of light is the splitting of light
○ Law I: The incident ray, the refracted
into distinct colours when passing through
ray and the normal to the surface at
a prism, resulting in a spectrum.
the point of incidence always lies in the
• Each beam of light travels through the
same plane.
prism twice, once as it enters and once as
○ Law II: The ratio of the sine of the angle
it exits.
of incidence to the sine of the angle of
• The degree of bending or refraction is
refraction is constant for a given pair of
determined by the light’s frequency (as well
media. It is independent of the angle of
as the nature of the glass).
incidence when light propagates from
a rarer to a denser medium. Moreover, Rainbow
for a light of a given colour, the ratio • The rainbow’s colours are created by
depends only on the pair of media. dispersion in minute water droplets.
○ This law was given by the Dutch • A full explanation would need some
scientist Willebrord van Roijen Snell intricate ray tracing, but whatever the light
and in his honour is often referred to routes are, they are distinct for various
as Snell’s law. frequencies.

30 Light: Reflection and Refraction

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• As they exit the drop, the scattered light Types of lenses

rays are completely internally reflected and Lenses are sometimes described in terms of
then refracted. the shapes, convex, concave or plane, of their
• The scattered rays that emerge now go two refracting surfaces.
in different directions based on their
frequencies, giving the impression that they
come from various regions of the sky.
Scattering of Light
• Light scattering occurs when light “hits” a
tiny object (a particle or a molecule) and Fig.7.11 Types of Lenses
alters its direction. Power of lens
• Absorption occurs when light is absorbed • The better a converging lens is at converging
when it collides with a particle. light, the lower its focal length. This feature
• There are two ways that light interacts of a lens, its capacity to converge is known
with matter: as power, which is officially defined as the
reciprocal of focal length:
○ Absorption: The photons (the light)
disappear. P = l/f
○ Scattering: The photons change their • The SI unit of optical power is the reciprocal
direction. Here, we shall deal only with metre (m-1). A commonly used alternative
scattering. name for the unit is the dioptre.
▪ And only scattering from particles • For example, if the focal length is +0.500
placed (and moving) randomly in m, the power is +2.00 m-1 or 2.00 dioptres.
relation to each other, i.e. dissolved • The negative value of power for a diverging
in a solvent. lens expresses the fact that it does the
▪ If the light is being scattered from opposite of converging; a diverging lens
ordered particles, this can cause can be called a negative lens.
such phenomena as reflection, Human Eye
refraction or diffraction. • Light having wavelengths between 400 and
700 nanometres is visible to the human eye.
• The human eye is essentially spherical,
measuring around 24 mm long and 22 mm
broad, with the majority of the eye housed
inside the sclera, a tough flexible covering.
• The optical system in the eye creates
genuine pictures of the light-sensitive
retina. The cornea’s outer surface does the
majority of the focussing.
Fig.7.10 Scattering of Light • The anterior chamber, which is the space
behind the cornea is filled with a watery
Lens
liquid termed aqueous humour, which has
• A simple lens is an optical device that
a refractive index of 1. (1.336)
can produce pictures and is generally
composed of glass or transparent plastic. • By changing the shape of the eye’s lens, it
is possible to change the focal length of
• A round form and two curved, generally
the eye and hence its capacity to create
spherical faces characterise most lenses.
pictures of objects at various distances, a
• By refracting light beams at both of their
process known as accommodation.
surfaces, they create pictures.

Light: Reflection and Refraction 31

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• The lens is a multi-layered device with a Defects in the Vision

refractive index that changes from one The range of accommodation in the eyes
layer to the next. decreases with age. To make up for this loss
• Finally, light travels through the vitreous and also, to correct defects, spectacles are
humour, a clear jelly-like material that fills used. Common defects are as follows:
the posterior chamber of the eye (refractive • Hyperopia
index 1.337). ○ Hyperopia (also known as
• On the retina at the rear of the eye, inverted hypermetropia) is a condition in which
actual pictures are created. the image of a distant object appears
• The eye can normally concentrate on things behind the eye in relaxed vision.
that are more than 25 cm away; in fact, most ○ To address this flaw, a converging
young individuals can focus considerably spectacle lens is utilised, which adds
closer than that. power to the system.
• Cones and rods: Rods and cones are the • Myopia
two types of sensors found in the retina. ○ Myopia is a condition in which the
The cones mediate colour vision, which is retina forms a picture of a separate
known as photopic vision, at high levels of object in front of it.
light. ○ It is adjusted using a divergent
• When the eye has become dark-adapted, spectacle lens, which reduces the
the rods operate at low levels of light and system’s power.
do not offer the impression of colour, a • Astigmatism
process known as scotopic vision.
○ The radii of curvature of the cornea and
• The spectral response for intermediate lens are not the same for all cross-
light levels lies between the scotopic and sections containing the primary axis of
photopic vision responses, which is known the eye under this scenario.
as mesopic vision.
○ To compensate for the imperfection, a
lens with varying curvatures might be
utilised.
○ The realistic approach for astigmatism
correction is determined by the
presence of other visual abnormalities
in the eye.
○ A cylindrical lens may be utilised if
astigmatism is the sole flaw.
○ If there are additional flaws, the lens
may be made with one spherical and
one cylindrical surface.
○ Adding power to the weaker axis or
subtracting power from the stronger
axis may be suitable.

Fig. 7.12: Anatomy of Human eye

32 Light: Reflection and Refraction

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8 Current Electricity

Introduction S.I. Unit of Electric Charge:

• Coulomb (C) is S.I. unit of electric charge.
The passage of charged particles is known as
One coulomb is approximately equal to 6 ×
electrical current. In current electricity, the flow
1018 electrons.
of charges would be continuous. Current must
flow via a circuit. Electrons move from negative • The SI unit of the electric current is ampere (A).
to positive in a current. Electric current travels o An ampere is the passage of electric
in one direction, whereas electrons go in the charge across a surface at a rate of one
other way. From a greater to a lower electric coulomb per second. This indicates that
potential, electric current flows. one coulomb of electric charge passing
AC and DC through a cross-section for one second
• Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current is equivalent to one ampere.
(AC) are the two types of electric current. ○ An ammeter is used to measure it.
• The electric charge in Direct Current flows Electric Potential
in just one direction. • Electric potential is the amount of effort
• The direction of the electric charge varies necessary to get a unit positive charge from
occasionally in Alternating Current. infinity (outside the electric field) to any
• DC is generated by a cell or a battery. AC is location inside the electric field.
produced by AC generators and the mains. • The difference in electric potential between
Expression of Electric Current any two places in an electric field is referred
to as an electric potential difference. A
Electric current is represented by the letter
voltage is defined as the work done per unit
‘I’. Electric current is expressed as the rate of
charge between two sites in the presence
passage of electric charges. The rate of flow
of a static electric field.
is defined as the quantity of charge moving
through a certain region per unit of time.
Positive and negative charge:
A glass rod gains a positive charge when
brushed with silk; an ebonite rod develops a
negative charge when rubbed with wool.
Properties of electric charge:
• Charges that are diametrically opposed
attract each other, whereas charges that
are diametrically opposed repel each
other.
• The force between two charges is
proportional to the product of the two
Fig.8.1
charges and inversely proportional to
If a net electric charge (Q) flows through a the square of the distance (r) between
cross-section of a conductor in time t, then, the two charges (q1 and q2).

Where ‘I’ is the electric current, ‘Q’ is the net

charge and ‘t’ is time in seconds.

Current Electricity 33
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• The difference in electric potential is • Insulators are materials that block the
measured using a voltmeter. passage of energy into them. Rubber, glass,
Circuit Bakelite, and other materials are examples.
• Conductors (wire), a switch, a load, and a Resistors
power source form a circuit. A circuit has • Electrical resistance is the propensity to
the same start and stop points. oppose the passage of electric current.
Because a conductor’s resistance
transforms electrical energy into heat,

• Voltmeter: The potential difference or

an electric potential difference between
two locations in an electric circuit is
measured using this device.
• Galvanometer: This gadget measures
the potential difference, or electric
Fig. 8.2: Diagram of Simple Circuit
potential difference between two points
• A switch is used to open or shut the circuit.
in an electric circuit.
• The load, also known as a resistor,
transfers electrical energy into another Resistance:
kind of energy. Anything from a light bulb • The property of conductors that opposes
to a computer might be the culprit. the passage of electric current through
○ When there is no load in the circuit, a them is known as resistance. The ohm is
short circuit develops. A cell may be the SI unit of resistance. The Greek letter “
used to generate electricity. stands for ohm.
• Circuits are classified into two types: • 1 Ohm: A current flow of 1A through a
series and parallel. conductor between two places with a
○ In a series circuit, electrons only flow in potential difference of 1V is equivalent to 1
one way. In a parallel circuit, electrons ohm () of resistance (R).
flow via numerous branches.
Ohm’s Law
• Georg Simon ohm created the ohm’s
law by demonstrating the link between
voltage, current, and resistance. According
to Ohm’s law, the current flowing through
a conductor between two places is
proportional to the voltage across the
conductor.
Conductors and insulators
Fig.8.4 Graph of Potential Difference (V) Vs Electric
• Conductors are metals such as silver,
Current (I)
copper, and aluminium that enable electric
current to flow freely through them. Variable resistance:
Variable resistance is a component of an
electric circuit that regulates current without
altering the voltage from the source.
Rheostat:
This is a gadget that provides variable resistance
in a circuit.
Fig.8.3

34 Current Electricity
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Factors affecting Resistance of a Conductor • The current passing through each resistor
Resistance in a conductor is determined by the is proportional to the total current when
conductor’s type, length, and cross-sectional the resistors are linked in series.
area. Resistors in parallel:
Nature of material: • Because the resistors are linked in parallel,
• Good conductors are materials that the reciprocal of the overall device
provide the least amount of resistance. resistance equals the sum of the resistors’
The finest conductor of electricity is silver. reciprocals.
• Other materials, on the other hand, obstruct • The potential difference across each resistor
the passage of electric current, or the
in a parallel combination is the same and
movement of electrons through them. These
equal to the overall potential difference.
materials are known to be lousy conductors.
• By summing the electric current via
Insulators are another name for bad
individual resistors, the total current across
conductors.
the circuit may be computed.
• One of the finest insulators of electricity is
hard plastic. Heating effect of electric current:
Length of conductor: • When an electric current is applied to a
• Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the totally resistive conductor, the energy of
conductor’s length. the current is completely lost as heat,
• Thus, Resistance (R)  length of conductor (l) causing the resistor to heat up.

Area of cross section: Cause of heating effect of electric current:

• The conductor’s area of cross-section is • To overcome the resistance given by the
inversely proportional to the resistance R. (A). conductor through which it flows, the
• More conductor area allows electric current electric current creates heat.
to flow over a bigger area while lowering • The greater the resistance, the more heat is
resistance. generated by the electric current.
• As a result, resistance (R) = 1/area of • As a result, the creation of heat by an electric
conductor cross-section (A) current travelling through a conductor is
• The proportionality constant (rho) is unavoidable.
used here. The electrical resistivity of the
• Many products, such as electric irons,
conductor’s substance is referred to as this.
electric heaters, electric geysers, utilise
Resistivity: this heating effect.
When current runs perpendicular to its opposite
sides, it is stated as the resistance given by a Joule’s Law of Heating:
cube of a material with a side length of 1m. The • It asserts that the heat created in a resistor
ohm-metre (m) is a SI unit. is proportional to the square of the current
Combination of resistors applied to the resistor to the resistance for
• Series combination a given current and to the time the current
is flowing through the resistor.
• Parallel combination.
Resistors in series: Electric Bulb:
• In series refers to the connection of The filament of an electric bulb produces
resistors from one end to the other. light due to the heating impact of electricity.
• The overall resistance of the system is The bulb’s filament is usually constructed
equal to the sum of the resistances of all of tungsten metal, which has a melting
the resistors in the system in this example. temperature of 3380°C.

Current Electricity 35
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Electric Iron: difference in electric potential between

An electric iron is made up of high-melting- the electrodes.
point alloys. An electric heater and a geyser • The electrolytes and electrodes used in
have the same mechanism. an electrical cell determines the electric
Electric Fuse: potential between electrodes.
• The nickel-cadmium cell, the lead-acid
If there is any high voltage present, an electric
cell and the fuel cell are all examples of
fuse is employed to safeguard the electric
electrical cells.
equipment. Metal or alloy metals, such as
aluminium, copper, iron, lead, and others, are Types of cell:
used to make electric fuses. The fuse wire Based on the electrical properties of the cell,
melts when a larger voltage than indicated is Cells can divide into the following four types:
applied, protecting the electric equipment. Primary cell:
CFL (Compact Fluorescent Lamp) • An electrical cell that is powered by an
• The heating effect of electric current is not irreversible chemical process is referred to
used by CFLs. as a “primary cell.”
• They don’t have a filament within; instead, • Because the main cell is powered by an
they have two light-producing electrodes. irreversible chemical process, it cannot be
• The fluorescent coating within these bulbs recharged and must be replaced after it
has been utilised.
improves the brightness of the light.
• These cells are also known as Dry Cells
• CFLs conserve energy since they do not
since the bulk of primary cells receive
emit heat in addition to light.
their electrolytes in solid form within some
• Ordinary bulbs, on the other hand, lose
absorbent substrate.
energy when they heat up throughout the
Secondary cell:
illumination process.
• A secondary cell is an electrical cell that may
Electric Power be electrically recharged after being used.
• S.I. unit of electric power is watt (W). Reversible chemical processes are used to
○ 1W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1V × 1A power these cells.
○ I kilowatt or 1kW = 1000 W • By adding an external power source to
• Consumption of electricity (electric energy) the electrodes and electrolyte after they
is generally measured in kilowatts. have been utilised, the condition of the
○ The unit of electric energy is kilowatt- electrodes and electrolyte may be reversed.
hour (kWh). • Secondary cells often outperform the
○ 1 kWh = 1000 watt × 1 hour = 1 unit = primary cells in terms of discharge rate
1000 W × 3600 s efficiency, allowing them to be employed
with heavy loads that need a strong
○ 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 watt second = 3.6 ×
discharge rate performance.
106 J
Reserve cell:
Electrical Cell and Batteries
• Reserve cells are cells in which one of the
Electrical cell primary components are segregated from
• An electrical cell is a battery that converts the rest of the components before it is
chemical energy into electrical energy manually or automatically accessible.
to create electricity. Is a combination • Until they are manually triggered or by
of electrodes and electrolytes in which some other means, such as fire, water, or
the chemical interaction between the other methods, these cells remain inactive
electrodes and electrolytes results in a and non-functional.

36 Current Electricity
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• A thermal cell is an example of this, in • Primary battery:

which the electrolyte remains inactive until ○ The term “primary battery” refers to a
the heat provided melts it and activates the battery that is built up of primary cells.
cell. ○ The energy is fundamentally present in
Fuel cell: the Primary Battery’s cells.
• A Fuel Cell is a device that uses a chemical ○ These batteries are not rechargeable
reaction with an oxidising agent to transform and should only be used once.
chemical energy from a fuel into electrical ○ The Leclanche battery, zinc-chlorine
energy. battery, alkaline-manganese battery,
• Fuel cells may run on hydrogen, metal-air battery, and others are
hydrocarbons, natural gas, and other fuels. examples of primary batteries.
• As long as it gets fuel and an oxidising • Secondary battery:
agent, a fuel cell may produce electricity. ○ The term “secondary battery” refers to
Battery: a battery made up of secondary cells.
• An Electrical Cell is a single electrochemical ○ Adding external energy or sources
generator, while a battery is a collection of induces electricity in the chemistry of
numerous such units linked electrically. secondary battery cells until they are
• A battery is made by connecting many used.
cells electrically in series or parallel to ○ Lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium
create a battery with two primary terminal batteries, nickel-iron batteries, and
electrodes, positive and negative. other secondary batteries are examples.
• The number of cells, cell type, and cell ○ Secondary batteries include
combination utilised to construct the battery Automotive/SLI/Portable Batteries,
defines the electrical potential difference Vehicle Traction/Motive Power/
between the two primary electrodes. Industries Batteries, Stationary
Batteries, and Homemade Batteries
Types of battery:
Batteries are divided into two major classes Magnets attract each other when they have
based on their electric properties: opposing poles, whereas they repel each other
when they have the same polarity.

Current Electricity 37
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9 Magnetism

Types of Magnets ○ An electromagnet is the product of this

• In nature, Fe3O4 serves as a magnet. operation.
• Magnets having the same polarity repel ○ The Fleming “Left Hand Rule” may
each other, but magnets with opposing be used to locate electricity. Electric
poles attract. motors find the application of Fleming’s
Left-Hand Law.
Coulomb’s Law for Magnetism
○ When a current-carrying conductor is
The effects of the two magnets are proportional
put in a magnetic field, it is exposed to
to each magnet’s magnetic pole strengths
an opposite-direction force.
and inversely proportional to their separation.
These forces have identical magnitudes, but Fleming’s left-hand rule
their orientations are in the other direction. • To determine the location of this power, apply
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. Electric motors
F= k m1 .m2
are the most common implementation of
d2
Fleming’s Left-Hand Law.
F1=-F2
• A current-carrying conductor encounters
Where k is the constant, m1 and m2 are the a force that resists both the current and
magnetic strengths of the poles, and d is their magnetic field directions when it is put in a
distance. magnetic field.
• As indicated in the diagram below, a
Magnetic lines of force
segment of a conductor of length ‘L’ is
Each magnet’s influence is related to the intensity vertically placed in a homogenous horizontal
of its magnetic poles and inversely proportional magnetic field of strength ‘H’, created by
to the distance between those poles. The two magnetic poles N and S.
magnitudes of these forces are similar, but their
• Hold your left hand out in front of you with
orientations are in the other direction.
your forefinger, second finger, and thumb all
Electric current and magnetic field at an angle to one another, as indicated. The
• Magnetic field due to a current through a forefinger is pointing down and the second
circular loop finger is pointing up in this situation. The
○ A straight wire’s magnetic field is thumb is pointing in the desired direction
proportional to the distance between it • When current runs through a conductor, it
and the source of the current it carries. creates a magnetic field around it.
• Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid
Electric motor
○ A solenoid is a cone-shaped coil
An electric motor is a spinning mechanism
made up of numerous circular turns
that converts electrical energy into mechanical
of insulated copper wire wound tightly
energy. Electric motors are used in a wide range
together.
of applications.
○ The solenoid has a magnetic north and
south pole. Principle
○ When a piece of magnetic material, A motor is made out of a rectangular coil that is
such as soft iron, is placed within a placed in a magnetic field and flows electricity
solenoid’s coil and magnetised, a strong through it. A force is applied to the coil, causing
magnetic field is created. it to spin endlessly.

Magnetism 39
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Electromagnetic induction • If the first finger points in the direction of

• A current-carrying conductor meets a force the magnetic field and the second finger in
when it is positioned in a magnetic field the direction of the current, the thumb will
with the current direction perpendicular to point in the direction of motion or force
the magnetic field. imparted to the conductor.
• As a consequence of this power, the Domestic Electric Circuits
conductor moves. • The main supply (also known as mains) that
• Think about how a conductor moves in powers our houses is delivered by overhead
and out of the magnetic field, or how the electric poles or subterranean wires.
magnetic field changes around it. • The electrical flow of each appliance is
controlled by its own switch. To guarantee
• An English physicist named Michael Faraday
that each appliance has the same potential
was the first to explore this.
difference, they’re connected in series.
• Faraday made a significant breakthrough in
• Fuse boxes are an important part of any
1831 when he discovered how to produce
house circuit.
electric currents using a moving magnet.
○ Both the circuit and the appliances that
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule are connected to it are protected by a
• As the conductor moves through the fuse when there is too much electricity
magnetic field, Fleming’s right-hand rule in the circuit.
(for generators) tells which way the induced ○ There may be a problem if the live
current is going to flow. and neutral wires touch each other. In
• if the first finger points in the direction of this case, when the wire insulation is
the magnetic field, and the second finger broken or the device doesn’t work, this
points in the direction of the current, the happens. If you have a lot of electricity
thumb will point in that direction. flowing through a circuit, it will quickly
grow. This is called “short-circuiting,”
Electric generator and that’s what the term means.
• When a conductor linked to a circuit travels
○ By preventing the flow of too much
in a magnetic field, Fleming’s right-hand
electric current, an electric fuse
rule (for generators) indicates the direction
safeguards the electric circuit and the
in which the current flows.
equipment.

40 Magnetism
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10 Stars and Our Solar System

The universe is made up of stars, planets, and • The distance between the Earth and the
galaxies, and its size is unknown. The observable Sun is about 150,000,000 kilometres.
cosmos, on the other hand, is a spherical • After the sun, Alpha Centauri is the
fraction of the universe observable from Earth. name given to the star that is nearest
A multitude of spontaneously occurring physical to Earth. The distance between Earth
phenomena makes up the Observable Universe. and Alpha Centauri is estimated to be
Celestial artefacts are what they’re called. 40,000,000,000,000 kilometres.
The sun, moon, stars, and planets in our solar
system are examples of celestial bodies. Light Year
• The distance between celestial objects is
Stars
measured in light-years.
• Celestial bodies made up of heated gases are
• A light-year is the average distance travelled
known as stars (mainly helium and hydrogen).
by light in a year, as the name indicates.
The stars are not all created equal. In terms of
light, size, colour, and temperature, they may vary. • Light travels at a speed of 300,000
They are huge in size yet seem like a point-sized kilometres per second.
thing from Earth’s surface. This is owing to their • The distance between the sun and the
extreme seclusion from the rest of the world. Earth is 8 light minutes.
• The lifetime of stars is limited. After millions • The distance between Alpha Centauri and
of years, they are born and live for tens of Earth is about 4.3 light-years. As previously
millions of years before dying. stated, a light-year is a measure of distance
• Because stars have such a lengthy lifespan, rather than time.
their changes are slow. As a consequence, Why are stars invisible during the daytime?
they seem immortal to us. During the day and at night, stars may be seen
Why do stars twinkle? in the sky. However, during the day, the sunlight
When light from stars strikes the earth’s is so bright that it is difficult to see the stars
surface, it must pass through multiple layers of in the sky.
the atmosphere before reaching the surface. As Can stars change their positions?
a result of the shift in densities of the earth’s If we observe a star or a cluster of stars for
atmosphere and the density of space, it looks a few hours, we will notice that their position
like the light is travelling in a zig-zag pattern. As seems to move. This is related to the rotation of
a result, the stars seem to be sparkling to us. the earth. The cosmos keeps spinning around
Why is the sun a star? the sun, shifting its position with reference to
• The sun is also a star since it can generate the stars.
its own heat and light energy. Why do stars seem to be moving from east to
• The sun, like all other stars, has a life span. west?
• The sun is thought to have been born The Earth revolves from west to east in a
roughly 5 billion years ago and will continue clockwise pattern. The globe looks to be
to exist for another 5 billion years. motionless, yet the horizon appears to be
rising from east to west. This is not the case,
Distance between the Sun and the Earth
though. This is why it looks like the sun rises in
• Because the sun is so near to the earth in
the east and sets in the west.
comparison to other stars, it does not look
like a point-sized object.

Stars and Our Solar System 41

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The Significance of the Pole Star • How can we locate a pole star using Ursa
Polaris, or the pole star, is positioned above Major?
the Earth’s axis of spin. As a result, the position ○ Merak and Dubhe are two stars in the
of the pole star tends to be set. In contrast, the Ursa Major constellation.
locations of the other stars in reference to the ○ If we draw an imaginary line from Merak
Planet varies all the time. to Dubhe and continue it farther in the
Constellations same direction, we will come upon the
• A constellation is defined as a group of stars pole star.
that create a distinct shape or pattern. ○ The pole star is not visible from the
• Ancient humans utilised constellations to southern hemisphere since it is located
identify stars. above the northern hemispheres.
• The form of the constellations frequently ○ Similarly, many northern hemisphere
corresponds to the usage of items by constellations cannot be seen from
ancient humans. various southern hemispheres.
• A constellation is made up of more than 5 or • Orion or the Hunter
10 stars. A constellation consists of multiple ○ It’s one of the sky’s most beautiful
stars, but only the brightest are visible. constellations.
• The stars that make up a constellation ○ It consists of seven or eight bright stars.
are all in the same line of sight, but their ○ In the centre, three stars appear,
distances differ. mimicking a hunter’s belt.
Major constellations ○ Four more stars are arranged in a
• Ursa major or saptarishi or the big dipper quadrilateral design.
or the great bear • Sirius
○ This constellation consists of seven ○ The brightest star in the sky is Sirius.
major stars that resemble a huge ○ The constellation Orion may be used to
question mark or a spoon. locate it.
○ The spoon’s handle is made by ○ We’ll find Sirius, the brightest star in
combining three stars in a row, and the constellation Orion, by drawing an
the spoon’s bowl is made out of the imaginary line through the three stars
remaining four stars. in the constellation’s centre.
Significance of saptarishi • Cassiopeia
In Indian mythology, the seven stars of the Ursa ○ During the winter season, it is a
Major constellations are thought to represent Northern Hemisphere constellation
seven saints. These seven Saints are considered visible in the atmosphere at the start
to be endowed with Vedic knowledge, which of the night.
they pass along to future generations. ○ The shape of this constellation is a W
or a twisted M.
○ This star was named after Queen
Cassiopeia in Greek mythology.
• Leo major
○ It is made up of several bright stars,
allowing it to be easily spotted in the
sky.
○ Both the Northern (January to June) and
Southern (July to August) hemispheres
Fig.10.1 Saptarishi may view it (summer and autumn).

42 Stars and Our Solar System

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○ The Leo emerges upside down from Mercury

the southern hemisphere. • It’s the planet that’s the farthest away
○ It was found some 6000 years from the sun.
ago, making it one of the oldest • It is the tiniest planet in the solar system.
constellations. • Mercury is difficult to see because it is
○ Hercules’ exploits are symbolised by obscured by the sun’s light.
this constellation. • As a result, it can only be seen or noticed
The Solar System in the sky right before sunset or dawn.
• The Solar System is made up of the Sun, It does not have its own natural satellite.
planets, asteroids, meteors, and other Venus
celestial bodies. • It is the most brilliant of all the planets.
• The magnetic pull between the earth and • It may be seen immediately before dawn
heavenly particles maintain them spinning in the eastern sky or just before nightfall
around the sun. in the western sky. As a consequence, it’s
• For all of the planets in the solar system, often known as a morning or evening star.
the sun is the major source of heat and • It does not have its own natural satellite.
light energy.
• Unlike the Earth, which revolves from west
The planets to east, Venus rotates from east to west.
• The planets in our solar system are Mercury, Venus, like the moon, exhibits phases.
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Earth
and Neptune. There is no light on the
• Only on Earth does life exist.
planets. They have the capacity to reflect
• The existence of life on the planet is
the light that strikes them.
made possible by favourable climatic
• The revolution cycle is the amount of
circumstances such as the presence of an
time it takes for a planet to complete one
atmosphere and water.
revolution around the sun. As the distance
• The temperature conditions are thus
between the sun and the planets grows,
favourable for the evolution of life since the
so does the time it takes for a planet to
Earth is at a perfect distance from the sun.
rotate.
• The earth’s axis is tilted, causing the
• Many of the planets also rotate on their
seasons to shift on the globe.
own axis. The time it takes a planet to
complete one spin is referred to as its Orbital and Equatorial plane of the Earth
rotational time. • Orbital plane of the Earth
• Satellites or celestial phenomena encircle ○ We presume that the Earth revolves
the planets. around the Sun in an orbit. The plane
in which it circles the Sun is known as
• The moon, for example, is Earth’s natural
its orbital axis.
satellite. However, the earth is orbited by a
number of artificial satellites. • Equatorial plane of the Earth
○ The Equator is a hypothetical line drawn
Why do planets not fall into the sun?
from the planet’s centre. The plane
• All of the planets are known to be affected
that travels parallel to the equator is
by the sun’s gravitational pull.
known as the equatorial plane.
• They do not, however, fall into the sun
○ The equatorial axis and orbital plane of
since they are likewise spinning in a set
the earth are slanted at a 23.5o angle.
course around the sun.
As a consequence, the earth’s axis is
• This rotation keeps them from collapsing inclined to the orbital plane at a 66.5o
towards the sun. angle.

Stars and Our Solar System 43

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○ From space, the planet seems bluish- Neptune

green because it is really covered with • It takes the longest to circle around the
sunshine. The moon is the natural sun since it is the furthest planet from it.
satellite of the Earth. • There are eight natural satellites orbiting it.
Mars
• Because of its reddish colour, it is known
as the Red Planet.
• It has two moons of its own.
What is Mangalyaan?
The Mangalyaan Orbiter was launched by the
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
It was launched into orbit around Mars in
November 2013, and it was placed in orbit
around Mars in September 2014. India was the
first country to successfully deploy an orbital
in its orbit on the first try. Table 10.1 Period of Rotation, Revolution and Distance
Jupiter of all the Planets
• It is the biggest planet in the solar system. Inner and outer Planets
It might contain as many as 1300 Earth-like • Inner planets refer to the solar system’s
planets. initial four planets. These planets have a
• For its size, it doesn’t have a lot of bulk. limited number of moons of their own.
Jupiter’s density is over 318 times that of • The planets beyond Mars are known as the
the Earth’s. solar system’s outer planets. These planets
• Jupiter’s revolution takes just 9 hours and are all surrounded by a ring system and
55 minutes. have a huge number of moons.
• Jupiter has a number of moons, four of Other Members of the Solar System
which can be seen using a telescope from • Asteroids
Earth. ○ Asteroids and other celestial bodies
• The planet Jupiter is encircled by narrow may be found throughout the solar
rings. system. Asteroids are small rock-like
Saturn formations in Earth’s orbit.
• Saturn is encircled by thick circles visible ○ They are most often encountered in
to the naked eye. the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The
• It has 30 natural satellites of its own. Asteroid Belt is another name for this
• Saturn is the solar system’s least dense area. Asteroids, on the other hand, may
planet, with a mass less than that of water. be found across the solar system.

Uranus • Comet
• Uranus rotates from east to west, much ○ Comets are large ice and rock bodies
like Venus. that orbit the sun in elliptical orbits.
• There are a total of 21 natural satellites ○ Comets are rock pieces that originated
orbiting it. during the early stages of the solar
• The rotating axis of the Uranus is steeply system’s formation.
inclined. ○ The tail of a comet is often seen. The
• Hydrogen and methane oxide are abundant tail of a comet shows when it passes
in Uranus’ atmosphere. by the sun.

44 Stars and Our Solar System

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○ Dust and gas are ejected from the • A meteor shower is what this is called. In
comet at that time due to the sun’s the atmosphere, several meteor showers
heat. The comet’s tail is still pointed in occur on a regular basis.
the opposite direction of the sun since • Artificial satellites: These are man-made
it is circling the sun. spacecraft that are sent into orbit around
○ The size of the comet’s tail grows in the Earth. They come closer to Earth than
proportion to the distance between the the moon. Among the purposes of artificial
sun and the comet. satellites are:
○ Comets may be seen from Earth at ○ Weather forecasting
regular intervals because they circle ○ Transmission of signals of radio and
around the sun. television
○ Halley’s Comet, for example, occurs ○ Remote sensing - getting information
every 76 years. It was last viewed in 1986. about an item from afar; for example,
an artificial satellite might gather
• Meteoroids and Meteors
information about the earth from afar.
○ From time to time, asteroids collide
○ Telecommunication - Data is
in space, resulting in meteoroids.
transmitted by radio transmissions and
As a consequence, meteoroids are
electromagnetic technologies.
minuscule asteroid pieces.
Some Indian artificial satellites of the earth:
○ These meteoroids are used to make
• Aryabhata
meteoroids.
• INSAT
○ A meteoroid appears in the sky as a
streak of light or a meteor as it travels • IRS
through the Earth’s atmosphere. • Kalpana-1
Meteors typically travel at high speeds • EDUSAT
when they enter the atmosphere. The
Artificial satellites Natural satellites
pressure of the environment causes
them to heat up.
They are formed They are formed
○ Meteors appear as a streak of light as and controlled by naturally.
a consequence. They dissipate in the
humans.
sky before reaching the surface of the
Earth, therefore this streak of light is They are not They are permanent.
only visible for a short period. permanent.
○ Meteors are often known as shooting
stars because of their striking They may They are unable to
appearance; however, meteors are not communicate with communicate or
stars, but rather a piece of the earth. the earth by sending transmit messages
Meteor shower and receiving signals. from the surface of
• As the planet travels through the tail of the planet.
a comet, many moving meteors may be
observed in the atmosphere.

Stars and Our Solar System 45

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11 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Radiation • Fixed and mobile broadcasting, television

transmission, radar systems, and computer
Radiation that moves outward from its sources,
such as light waves or other forms of energy, networks are all possible applications for
is called electromagnetic radiation. It is the these man-made radio waves.
electromagnetic spectrum that is generated • FM radio waves, in the frequency range
as a result of the interaction of these various of 88 to 108 MHz, are also employed for
frequencies.
commercial radio broadcasting.
Electromagnetic Spectrum ○ Frequency modulation is an alternate
• To put it simply, the electromagnetic
method of transferring data (FM)
(EM) spectrum includes all forms of
○ The audio stream has a constant
electromagnetic radiation. Light and sound
waves from a radio or a light bulb in your amplitude but a variable frequency as a
home are both examples of electromagnetic result of modulating the carrier wave’s
radiation. frequency (in this case, 105.1 MHz).
• The electromagnetic spectrum includes
microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light,
gamma radiation, and X-rays.
Radio Waves
• Radio waves and infrared light are the two
forms of electromagnetic radiation that
exist (EM).
• Because of their wide range of lengths,
they have wavelengths spanning from 300
GHz to 3 kHz.
• The speed of all-electric waves, including
radio waves, is the same... Radio waves are
generated by lightning and astronomical
bodies.
• These man-made radio waves may be used
in a variety of ways, including radio and
television broadcasts, radar systems, and Fig. 11.1
computer networks.
• Television signals may also travel by
Types of radio waves and applications electromagnetic waves.
• There are two types of electromagnetic • As a result, each channel must have a
radiation: radio waves and infrared light (EM). substantially greater frequency range than
• In length, they have wavelengths ranging radio transmission.
from 300 GHz to 3 kHz, which is why they • The 54-88 MHz and the 174-222 MHz
are so diverse. frequency bands are often used by
• The speed of all-electric waves, including television networks (the entire FM radio
radio waves, is the same... Radio waves are band lies between 88 MHz and 174 MHz).
generated by lightning and astronomical • This stands for Video High Frequency (very
bodies. high frequency).

Electromagnetic Spectrum 47
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• There are 470 to 1000 MHz ultra high- range from 10 to 1 centimetre is referred
frequency networks, for example. to as the “centimetre band.”. Most radar
• When it comes to television, the visual transmitters and microwave radio relay
signal is AM, while the audio is FM. networks operate in this frequency range, as
• A roof-mounted antenna may be used to do short-range terrestrial data cables.
transmit free of charge in this range of • From 300 MHz up to 3 GHz, the decimeter
radio waves. band is home to the ultra-high frequency
(UHF) spectrum. From 10 centimetres to a
• High-definition video is now feasible owing
metre in length, wavelengths are common.
to new high-frequency equipment.
In addition to walkie-talkie systems
Microwaves and satellite networking, all of these
• There is a wide range of frequencies technologies may be utilised for other
and wavelengths associated with purposes as well.
microwaves, from the hundreds of
Uses and application of microwave
megahertz (GHz) all the way down to a few
• Cooking meals in a microwave is possible.
hundred nanometers (m).
In order to create 2.45 GHz microwaves,
• It should be possible for microwaves and
electrons must be accelerated.
the highest frequencies of radio waves
• Dielectric heating happens because polar
to converse with one other (shortest
molecules absorb this energy and raise
wavelength).
their temperature to keep themselves
• Microwaves move at the speed of light in
aligned with the electric field.
a vacuum.
• Radar was created during World War
• Because “micro-” is prefixed with “micro,”
II by combining microwaves with new
it does not indicate that the wavelength is
technologies. When determining the
measured in micrometres.
distance to various objects, such as clouds
• Microwaves, in contrast to radio and aircraft, radar utilises microwave echoes
communications, typically use much as a distance measurement method.
shorter wavelengths.
• The maser’s light energy may be boosted,
• Terahertz radiation and ultraviolet light
much like a laser, by setting off photons
have no noticeable distinctions. It is
within the device. The maser enhances
possible to find them across a wide range
radio frequency emissions and microwaves
of academic disciplines.
instead of producing visible light.
Subcategories of microwaves
Infrared waves
The microwave section of the radio spectrum
• When compared to visible light, the
maybe broken down into three ranges, from
wavelength of infrared light ranges from
high to low frequencies.
0.74 micrometres to 1 millimetre (mm).
• The greater the microwave frequency, the
more powerful the microwaves (EHF). Light • In the 300 GHz to 400 THz frequency band,
with a frequency range of 30 to 300 gigahertz, the vast bulk of thermal radiation generated
or “terahertz radiation,” is far-infrared light. by objects at normal temperature is
This frequency spectrum covers a range of concentrated.
wavelengths from 10 nm to 1 nm. Remote • Differently spinning or vibrating molecules
sensing and radio astronomy both often use produce or absorb infrared light.
this frequency range. Visible Light
• Between three and thirty gigahertz (GHz) are • The electromagnetic spectrum covers all
the frequency ranges of ultrahigh-frequency visible light. The word “light” is often used
electromagnetic waves (SHF). The frequency to denote electromagnetic radiation in

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this frequency range. A wavelength range All of this is explained here: The wavelengths
of 390 nm to 750 nm may be used by of the red waves range from 620 to 750
the human eye to discriminate between nanometers (400-484 THz)
different colours (0.39 to 0.75 m). It • There are an endless amount of shades
covers wavelengths between 400 and 790 of every colour in the universe. Beyond
terahertz (THz). this distance, it has no impact on human
• At 555 nm, the human eye’s retina is at its sight. Photos were taken at wavelengths
most sensitive when it comes to picking that are outside the range of human vision
up light (540 THz). The best views may are considered true colour (for example,
be found here. No colours can be seen infrared photographs of humans or animals
by the human eye or brain in a rainbow. or astronomical X-ray images).
Since multiple light wavelengths must be • The Earth’s Atmosphere and the Light
combined to create non-saturated colours It Produces: The “optical window,” is a
like magenta, the number of possible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
sources are restricted. The reason for this that permits visible wavelengths to pass
is that they are very uncommon. through the atmosphere unnoticed,
• Visible light is generated through electronic enabling humans to see them. When the
transitions between atoms and molecules, air is pure, it reflects blue light instead of
as well as the rotation and movement red wavelengths, making the sky look bluer
of atoms and molecules. Electronic around midday.
advancements have a significant impact Visible light and Earth’s atmosphere
on light receivers and sensors. When • The “optical window,” is a portion of the
discussing the movement of atoms and electromagnetic spectrum that permits
molecules, this term is used. visible wavelengths to pass through the
atmosphere unnoticed, enabling humans
Visible Spectrum
to see them.
• Only a narrow band of frequencies in the
electromagnetic spectrum may be detected. • When the air is pure, it reflects blue light
Infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light are all instead of red wavelengths, making the sky
confusing to the average person. The seven look bluer around midday.
colours of the rainbow are less clear now Ultraviolet light
than they were in the past. • The wavelengths of UV light are shorter
• A visual representation of the spectrum is then those of visible light, but they are
displayed on the right. Red and violet are longer than those of X-rays. Since its
the most common colours in the visible wavelength exceeds that of visible light, it
spectrum. The resonant frequencies is referred to as electromagnetic radiation
of red and violet light’s wavelengths (EM) and has a range ranging from 10 to
are astronomically different. The Sun’s 400 nanometers.
blackbody radiation has peaks in the • In the sun, UV light may be visible from
visible spectrum, and yellow is the result. electric arcs and some lamps, such as
It seems yellow because red is more black lights.
prominent than violet. • In the dark, this form of light may be
• The phrase “pure spectral colours” refers to observed (where it accounts for around 10
hues that can only be created by a small range per cent of the energy in a vacuum). It may
of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation generate chemical reactions that result
(monochromatic light). The visible spectrum in shimmering or gleaming objects. Most
regions may be divided into the following UV radiation comes from non-ionising
major groups for each spectral colour: sunshine.

Electromagnetic Spectrum 49
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• UV radiation is recognised to cause sunburn Properties and applications

and a tan on the skin, despite its invisibility • It takes a lot of X-ray photon energy to
to our senses. break apart molecular bonds. Thus, ionising
• The Ozone layer absorbs UV above 278 nm, radioactivity, which may injure living tissue,
however, UV up to 315 nm may be damaging is the term for this kind of radiation. It is
to living organisms if it penetrates the possible to get ill from exposure to high
atmosphere, similar to short-wave ionising UV. doses of radiation in a short period of time.
• A major part of it may be attributed to Cancer may be generated in those who are
long-term skin damage and potentially exposed even to low radiation levels.
cancer-causing near UV light, which does • The risk of cancer is often balanced by
not cause sunburn. medical imaging’s advantages when it
• All animals that synthesise vitamin D are comes to a procedure. Because X-rays
susceptible to sunburn and vitamin D may be ionised, they can be used to
synthesis. treat malignant cells with radiation.
X-ray spectroscopy may also be used to
DNA UV mutation investigate materials.
• DNA molecules in living organisms might be
• One of the things in the electromagnetic
damaged by UV light photons in a number
spectrum, which has shorter wavelengths
of ways. There is no need to use a “ladder”
than visible light, which is x-rays. X-rays
to injure someone when Thymine bases
with a variety of wavelengths may be used
connect together. Because of this “thymine
in a variety of ways.
dimer,” DNA develops an extra bulge. The
DNA molecule is no longer functioning • In contrast to hard X-rays, which have
because of the twisted DNA. photon energies larger than or equal to 0.2-
• The World Health Organisation’s International 0.1 nm (wavelengths more than or equal to
Agency for Cancer Research has classified it 5-10 keV), soft X-rays have lower photon
as a category 1 carcinogen. There are many energies (wavelengths less than or equal to
different kinds and wavelengths of UV 0.2-0.1 nm) (wavelength less than 0.2-0.1 nm).
radiation. Carcinogens in this category have It’s common for hard X-rays to be used to
been shown to cause cancer in humans, picture the insides of things because of their
making it the most dangerous group. ability to penetrate deeper than conventional
X-Rays X-rays (e.g., in medical radiography and airport
• It’s possible for X-rays to travel up to security). X-ray is now used to describe
30 petahertz (31016 Hz) to collide with both the operation itself and the resulting
anything with an energy of 100 electron radiographic image. Rough X-rays have a
volts to 100 gigavolts (31019 Hz). These wavelength close to that of atoms, hence
particles have wavelengths ranging from they may be utilised in X-ray crystallography
0.01 to 10 nanometers. to determine the structure of crystals. In
• Gamma rays and UV rays are two distinct contrast, X-rays with a wavelength of 600
forms of UV radiation. eV (2 nm) permeate air more quickly and are
• In several languages, X-rays are referred to less attenuated by water.
as Röntgen radiation in honour of Wilhelm • Since they’re absorbed by our bodies,
Röntgen, who is often credited with gentle X-rays do nothing to improve our
discovering the rays. A kind of radiation images. Protecting the X-ray tube’s glass
that cannot be conclusively identified was with a shield constructed of aluminium is
termed by him as “X-rays,” and he referred necessary to get the low-energy spectrum.
to it as such. The term “hardening” refers to the process
of building a beam from wood or metal.

50 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Gamma Rays • Satellites are necessary because gamma

• A gamma wave is an electromagnetic rays are hindered by the atmosphere of
radiation with a wavelength of less than 10 Earth. High-energy physics experiments
picometers and a frequency of more than that generate artificial gamma rays include
10 exahertz, according to the International neutral pion disintegration and nuclear
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (less than the fusion.
diameter of an atom). Gamma rays vs. X-rays
• This means that there is no limit to the • Because the Earth’s atmosphere interferes
amount of energy that may be generated with gamma rays, satellites are required.
by radioactive decay, since gamma rays are Neutral pion disintegration and nuclear
universally recognised. fusion is an example of high-energy physics
• This decay seldom produces more than experiments that create artificial gamma
10 MeV of energy, and hence the energy rays.
released by gamma decay is generally in • It’s a lot harder to tell them differently.
the keV range The nucleus produces X-rays, whereas
electrons outside the nucleus produce
Gamma decay
gamma rays.
• Photographs contain gamma-ray radiation
images. Radiation exposure, such as gamma • It is possible to witness gamma decay after
radiation, has been linked to cancer. certain supernovae, although this is quite
unusual. In contrast, a Gamma source is
• A multitude of phenomena, such as gamma
decay and the disintegration of high-energy a high-energy device that does not need
states results in the formation of atomic radioactive decay to function.
nuclei. Health Effects
• In 1900, Paul Villard, a French physicist, • Ionising radiation has a similar effect on
investigated the gamma decay of a the cellular level. Because alpha and beta
radioactive isotope. particles do not penetrate the skin, they
• Villard’s radiation was dubbed “gamma inflict localised injury (e.g., radiation burns
rays” by Ernest Rutherford. to the skin).

Gamma-ray sources • The deeper gamma and neutron radiation

• Gamma rays are created in the atmosphere penetrate the body, the more damage
when cosmic-ray particles collide with it does (e.g., radiation sickness, cell DNA
naturally occurring radioisotopes like damage, cell death due to compromised
potassium-40 on Earth. DNA increased cancer incidence).
• Non-radioactive gamma radiation • Ingesting or ingesting a radioactive
discharges massive quantities of energy in substance may cause severe or localised
the form of lightning strikes and terrestrial inside harm, depending on the chemical
gamma-ray bursts. makeup.
• Gamma-ray emission may be caused by • Gamma rays having an energy of between 3
a number of celestial events. Secondary and 10 MeV are the most dangerous.
gamma radiation from electrons may
be generated via inverse-combination
scattering, synchrotron radiation, or
bremsstrahlung.

Electromagnetic Spectrum 51
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12 Concepts of Matter

Matter is defined as a substance that has its • Due to little space available between the
own mass and occupies space. It is made particles, the force of attraction between
up of clumps of microscopic particles. These solid particles are the highest.
particles are invisible, yet the matter may be
The Liquid State
seen, such as a book, a car, a letter, a phone,
• It has a definite volume but no defined
a piece of wood, a tree, a bag, and so on.
form.
Whereas substances include water, iron, gold,
• The attraction between liquid particles is
copper, aluminium, and oxygen. Although both
substances and forms of matter are types of less strong than that of solid particles. As
matter, not all types of matter are substances. a consequence, a space exists between
Material is a pure state of matter that remains the liquid ions, enabling them to freely
constant over time. circulate. They can’t be compressed. It’s for
Constituents of Matter this reason that they’re commonly referred
to as fluids.
Every living and non-living creature, according
• Because liquid particles have high kinetic
to early Indian thinkers, comprises five
energy, they keep moving.
essential elements: air, water, earth, sky, and
fire. As a result, the matter is made up of these • Other substances that diffuse into liquids
five components. include the Diffusion of other materials,
whether solids, liquids or gases. Because
Characteristics of particles of matter
there is room between the liquid particles,
• They are separated by spaces.
additional matter particles may slip into
• They are always on the go.
those crevices.
• They are attracted to one another.
The Gaseous State
States of matter • There is no set volume.
Matter may be classified in a variety of ways. • There is no defined structure or shape.
There are two basic ways to categorise the
• This is the weakest force of attraction
situation: by matter’s physical condition as
between molecules.
a solid, liquid, or gas, and scientists have
identified three further forms of matter: plasma, • It can be squeezed more readily than solids
Bose-Einstein Condensate and Fermionic and liquids.
Condensate. • In the case of gases, the kinetic energy
The Solid State between the particles is the maximum. As
• Solids are things with three characteristics: a consequence, the ions move about at
fast rates with ease.
○ It has a specific shape.
○ It has distinct boundaries.
Gas Laws
○ It has a volume. Boyle’s law (Pressure-volume relationship)
• Solids have less kinetic energy among • Based on his findings, Robert Boyle
their particles. They’re usually grouped proposed that the pressure of a given
in a certain order. They are difficult to quantity (i.e., number of moles ‘n’) of gas
compress. changes inversely with its volume at a

Concepts of Matter 53
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constant temperature. Boyle’s Law is the

name given to this phenomenon.
Mathematically, it can be written as p 1/V (at
constant T and n)
 p =k1*1/ V where k1 is the proportionality
constant.
• The volume of gas present, the temperature
of the gas, and the units in which p and
V are stated all influence the value of
constant k1.
Charles’ law (Temperature -volume
relationship)
Fig.12.1 Pressure vs temperature (K)
• To develop hot air balloon technology,
graph (Isochores) of a gas
Charles and Gay Lussac conducted their
own research on gases. Avogadro law (Volume - amount relationship)
• Their research demonstrated that when a • Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian physicist,
fixed quantity of gas is held at constant attempted to reconcile Dalton’s atomic
pressure, the volume of the gas grows as theory with Gay Lussac’s rule of combining
the temperature rises and decreases as volumes, known as Avogadro Law, in 1811.
the temperature lowers. • At the same temperature and pressure,
all gases contain the same number of
Gay lussac’s Law (Pressure-temperature
molecules in equal volumes. Until the
relationship)
temperature and pressure are steady, the
• On a hot summer day, pressure in properly
volume is determined by the number of
inflated automobile tyres are almost
molecules in the gas or the quantity of gas.
constant, but it increases quickly on a hot
summer day, and if pressure is not adjusted • V n, where n is the number of moles in the
appropriately, the tyre may burst. gas, may be expressed mathematically.
• During the frigid winter morning, the • The Avogadro constant is the number of
air pressure in a vehicle’s tyres drops molecules in a gas mole, which has been
dramatically. calculated to be 6.022 X 1023.
• Joseph Gay Lussac invented Gay Lussac’s Effect of Increase in Temperature
Law, which is a mathematical connection Solids:
between pressure and temperature. • When solid particles are heated, their
• It asserts that, given a fixed volume of a kinetic energy increases, lessening the
specified amount of gas, the pressure attraction force between them.
of the gas varies directly in relation to ○ They begin to vibrate and vary their
temperature. Mathematically, positions. Heat loosens the particles
over time, changing a solid into a liquid.
• Melting point: They begin to vibrate and
vary their positions. Heat loosens the
• The laws of Boyle and Charles may be utilised particles over time, transforming a solid
to make this relationship. At constant molar into a liquid.
volume, Figure 1 displays a graph of pressure • Fusion: Fusion is the transformation of a solid
vs. temperature (Kelvin). Each line in this into a liquid. The temperature of a material
graph is referred to as an isochore. does not rise anymore during the melting
process once it reaches its melting point.

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During the melting process, the particles necessary to transform 1 kilogramme of a

utilise the heat contained in the material to liquid into a gas at atmospheric pressure
reduce the attraction force between them. at its boiling point.
Heat energy is thought to be buried.
Effects of Fall in Temperature
○ Latent heat: Latent heat is the thermal
Gases:
energy required to break the force of
• The kinetic energy of the ions reduces, and
attraction between matter particles.
they become liquid.
Because the heat is concealed, it is
referred to as Latent Heat. • Condensation/Liquefaction: It is the
process of turning a gas into a liquid by
○ Latent heat of fusion: The Latent Heat
freezing it. Cloud formation, for example,
of Fusion is the total amount of heat
is caused by the condensation of water
energy required to convert 1 kg of a
vapour from the Earth.
solid into a liquid under atmospheric
pressure at its melting point. Liquids:
• Atmospheric pressure: Pressure wielded • The kinetic energy of the particles reduces,
by the weight of the atmosphere. causing them to freeze. Take, for instance,
the production of ice.
Liquids:
• Sublimation is the process of converting
• Liquid particles’ kinetic energy rises, the
gas to a solid and vice versa. For example,
force of attraction between them falls, and
camphor is a solid that swiftly evaporates
they begin to move freely, much like solid
into the air but never becomes a liquid.
particles.
Effect of Change of Pressure
• The particles will finally be able to
• By adding pressure on matter particles, the
completely overcome the forces of
force of attraction between them may be
attraction if the temperature stays
increased, bringing them closer together.
constant. This is the point at which a liquid
turns into a gas. • A gas becomes a liquid when it is
compressed and the temperature is
• Boiling point: The boiling point of a liquid is
lowered.
the temperature at which it begins to boil
under atmospheric pressure. Water, for • Dry ice is a consistent source of carbon
example, has a boiling point of 373 Kelvin. dioxide.
• Latent heat of vaporisation: Latent heat of • It may be instantly converted to a gas by
vaporisation is the amount of heat energy lowering the pressure to one atmosphere.

Cooling caused by evaporation:

• The energy of the liquid particles is used in the evaporation process. As a result, the
particles collect energy from their surroundings to compensate for the point lost during the
evaporation process. As a result, the atmosphere around you gets colder.
• On hot days, people, for example, sprinkle water on their roofs or the ground to keep cool.
Hot tea may be consumed faster on a saucer than in a cup.
Significance of wearing cotton clothes in summer:
• One sweats more in the summer. Sweat evaporates, removing moisture from our skin’s top
layer and keeping us cool.
• Cotton rapidly absorbs sweat and releases it into the air, allowing for swift evaporation. As
a result, you’ll stay cool even while it’s hot outside.

Concepts of Matter 55
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The reason behind water droplets appearing in the surroundings of glass with ice-cold water:
• In the atmosphere, there exist water vapours. They condense when they come into contact
with the ice-cold water on the glass panes.
• As a result, their state changes from gaseous to liquid, causing little water droplets to form
on the glass surfaces.

Plasma ○ A BEC resembles a superfluid or a

• On Earth, plasma is an uncommon state of frictionless fluid in terms of qualities.
matter, yet it might be the most abundant ○ BECs are also used to imitate the
in the cosmos. effects of a black hole.
• It’s a state of matter in which all of the • Condensing gases of extremely low densities
particles are very excited and energetic. form BEC to much lower temperatures.
They take the form of ionised gases.
Fermionic Condensates:
• Plasma is made up of highly charged particles • These are related to BECs, as both are
with high kinetic energy. Ionizing noble
made of atoms that coalesce at low
gases to the plasma state with electricity is
temperatures to form a single object. In a
a common way to make flashing lights.
BEC, the atoms are bosons. In a fermionic
• Plasma is found in fluorescent tubes and condensate, the atoms are fermions.
neon light bulbs, for example.
• Bosons are sociable; they like to get together.
○ When energy is delivered into the tube As a rule of thumb, any atom with an even
or bulb, the neon gas and another gas, number of electrons + protons + neutrons
such as helium, get ionised, resulting in is a boson. So, e.g., ordinary sodium atoms
the plasma that lights them up. are bosons, and they can merge to become
• Plasma is present in both the Sun and the Bose-Einstein condensates.
stars, which is why they shine. • Fermions, on the other hand, are antisocial.
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) They are forbidden (by the “Pauli Exclusion
• Based on studies conducted by Indian Principle” of quantum mechanics) to gather
scientist Satyendra Nath Bose, Albert together in the same quantum state. Any
Einstein identified the 5th state of matter. atom with an odd number of electrons +
• Eric Cornell and Carl Weiman produced protons + neutrons, like potassium-40, is
the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) in a fermion.
1995 by utilising a combination of lasers Some Important Concepts
and magnets to chill a rubidium sample to
Melting and freezing
within a few degrees of absolute zero.
• The particles vibrate more and spread out
○ At this low temperature, the molecular
wider when heated. A material’s melting
motion almost comes to a halt. Because
point is the temperature and pressure ratio
very little kinetic energy is transferred
at which it melts and becomes a liquid.
from one atom to the next, the atoms
• When heat is given to a system with two
tend to cluster together.
states of matter at equilibrium pressure
○ Instead of hundreds of conventional
and temperature, the material’s average
atoms, there is just one “super-atom.”
temperature does not rise until the whole
• At the macroscopic level, a BEC is utilised sample has reached the same physical
to research quantum mechanics.
condition.
○ When light travels through a BEC, it • If ice is kept at room temperature for many
slows down, causing scientists to hours, the ice and water will ultimately
ponder the particle/wave conundrum. reach the same temperature.

56 Concepts of Matter
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○ If the ice cube melts because of the (flash vaporisation) or when a specimen is
water’s heat, the temperature may “freeze-dried” by freezing it under vacuum
stay at zero degrees Celsius for a while conditions, the water in the material
before it starts to get warmer again. sublimates.
• Adding other components to water, such as ○ At normal temperature and pressure, a
salt, may change the melting and freezing few toxic substances, such as dry ice
points. or frozen carbon dioxide demonstrate
○ An example is the addition of salt to sublimation.
snow which decreases the temperature Vaporisation
that water freezes on roads, making it • The process of transforming a liquid into a
safer for drivers. gas by evaporation or boiling is known as
• Triple point is the point where solids, vaporisation.
liquids and gases all exist simultaneously. • Liquids cool when they evaporate because
○ Water exists in all three states at a the energy is transferred to the surface
temperature of 273.16 Kelvin and a molecules.
pressure of 611.2 pascals. • When a liquid is heated to a certain
Sublimation temperature, it melts and creates vapour
• In this process, Without going through a clouds under the surface. The temperature
liquid phase, a solid may be transformed and pressure at which a liquid changes
into a gas. into gas are known as the transition
• When the temperature of a sample is temperature and pressure.
quickly elevated over its boiling point

Concepts of Matter 57
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13 Chemical Classification
of Matter
Introduction • Ductility: Ductility refers to a metal’s ability
to be pulled into wires.
Elements
• Chemical elements make up the basic • Hardness: Except for sodium and
structure of anything that can’t be broken potassium, all metals are hard.
down any farther chemically. • Valency: Metals contain 1 to 3 electrons
• The atomic number of a chemical element in the outermost shell of their atoms by
is the only way to identify it as a single nature.
molecule. • Conduction: Metals are good conductors
• Examples of elements include helium, as they have free electrons.
carbon, iron, gold, silver, copper, ○ Silver and copper are the best
aluminium, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, conductors of heat and electricity.
sulphur, copper, chlorine, iodine, uranium, • Density: Metals have a high density in
and plutonium. relation to their weight. Lithium is in the
• Components that make up our cosmos centre of the group when it comes to the
are made up of elements. As of now, 118 most dense element.
elements have been discovered. Only two of • Melting and boiling points: Methane is a
the planet’s 94 naturally occurring elements gas with a high melting point and Metals
are detected in considerable amounts. with the highest melting and boiling points
○ Those elements are Neptunium (93) include tungsten and mercury. Sodium and
and Plutonium (94). potassium have low melting points.
Elements are further classified into Metals Chemical properties of metals
Except for water, metals are all elements • Electropositive character: The melting and
that obtain positive ions by losing electrons boiling points of metals are rather high.
during chemical processes. Metals with low The highest melting and boiling points are
ionisation energies are electropositive. They found in tungsten, whereas the lowest is
have a dazzling lustre, are very durable, and found in mercury.
are excellent heat and electricity conductors. • Sodium and potassium, on the other hand,
They are also extremely resistant to corrosion. have melting points that are low.
Physical properties of metals
Non-Metals
• State: Only water is an exception to this
rule: All metals lose electrons to form Non-metals tend to take up electrons and form
positive ions in chemical reactions. Metals anions in chemical reactions. These have high
have low ionisation energy because they ionisation energy. They are inefficient to heat
are electropositive. Aside from their eye- and electricity movers due to faults (except
catching sheen, they’re also excellent heat graphite). Non-metals include gases, liquids,
and electrical conductors. and solids.
• Lustre: Mirror-like reflections may be Physical properties of non-metals
achieved by polishing metals like gold, • Physical State: The majority of non-metals
silver, and copper. exist in one of two states of existence at
• Malleability: Metals can withstand ambient temperature: gases (oxygen) or
hammering and are thin enough to be used solids (carbon). Only bromine persists as a
as foils. liquid at room temperature.

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• Non-malleable and non-ductile: Non- A composite is a chemical mixture of two

metals cannot be rolled into wires or more separate components in a set
or pounded into boards due to their ratio that results in a new substance. The
extraordinary brittleness. mass proportions of all the components of
• Conduction: They are bad conductors of a pure compound are usually consistent.
heat and electricity. • Hydrogen and oxygen are the two
• Lustre: These have no metallic sheen and components that make up water. Hydrogen
don’t reflect light. and oxygen, the two gaseous constituents
• Melting and boiling points: The melting of water, are essentially distinct from one
points of non-metals are lower than metals another.
but are highly variable. • Oxygen and sulphur dioxide are formed
• Seven non-metals exist under standard when sulphur is burnt.
conditions as diatomic molecules: • In contrast to mixtures, chemical processes
H2(g), N2(g) O2(g), F2(g), Cl2(g), Br2(l), I2(s). are the sole way to separate substances
into their individual constituents.
Chemical properties of nonmetals
○ For example, water is a compound
Non-metals are more likely to receive or formed by the combination of two
share electrons with their neighbouring atoms elements, hydrogen and oxygen.
than metals. They have a negative personality
Mixture:
type. Non-metals seem to absorb electrons
• Any material that is made up of two or
and form anions when they react with metals
more different types of components is
(usually obtaining the noble gas electron
called a mixture.
configuration).
• Physical separation is possible.
Metalloids
• As an example, a salt-water combination
• Metalloids have properties that are halfway
and a sugar-water mixture are only two
between those of metals and non-metals. examples.
• Metalloids are significantly used in the • To put it another way, a mixture is created
semiconductor sector. when two substances are mixed without
• At room temperature, metalloids are solid. causing a chemical reaction.
Alloys are formed when metals combine. • When mixed, each component keeps its
• Semiconductors are metalloids such as own chemical identity.
silicon and germanium that may conduct • Many methods, such as mechanical mixing,
electricity under certain conditions. may be used to bring together the components
• Silicon, for example, is rigid and non-ductile of a mixture (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).
despite its shiny appearance (it is brittle - • The physical properties of a mixture may
a characteristic of some non-metals). differ from the characteristics of each of
• When compared to metals, it is a poor heat the individual components, even though
and electrical conductor. Metalloids are the components stay unchanged.
physically similar to metals, yet chemically ○ For instance, if one combines alcohol
they are not. and water, the combination has a
• Silicon and boron are two good instances different melting point and boiling
of this. Antimony, Germanium, and Arsenic. point than either component.
Compound: • The mixtures we face in our daily lives
• Compounds may be formed from most include salt and water, sand, sugar and
elements when they react with another salt, ethanol in water and so on.
element or a combination of components. • There are no mixes in everyday life

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Types of mixtures • A combination of dirt and sand, sulphur

Based on the composition of mixtures, they are and iron filings, oil and water, and so on is
divided into two types: heterogeneous because of the irregularity
• Homogeneous of its makeup.
• Heterogeneous Properties
Homogeneous mixture • There are few homogeneous mixes, except
• Homogeneous mixes are composed of for solutions and alloys, in nature.
components with a similar chemical • In a random distribution, the constituent
composition. particles are scattered.
○ When it comes to beverages, there are a • It’s easy to identify the various parts.
wide variety of options to choose from.
• Nanometer to micrometre-sized particles
○ A great example is salt and water being may be found in the samples.
mixed together. Salt and water cannot
• They put the Tyndall effect to the test.
be totally separated in this area, hence
this is the reason. Mixtures are further classified into solution, a
colloid, and a suspension.
Properties
• A homogeneous mixture contains all Solution: A solution is a combination of two
possible solutions. substances: a solute and a solvent that is
homogenous. Solutes and solvents may be
• Particles are less than a nanometer in
solid, liquid, or gaseous in nature.
diameter.
• Solute: substance being dissolved; present
• No evidence exists for the Tyndall effect.
in lesser amounts.
• Particle boundaries are irreversible.
• Solvent: substance doing the dissolving;
Heterogeneous mixture present in a more significant amount.
• They are distinct from homogeneous mixes
in that they are not homogenous all the
way through.

Table.13.1 Examples of Solution

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Solubility
• The ability of a chemical to dissolve and form a solution in a solvent is referred to as its
solubility (typically a liquid).
• A substance’s solubility is regulated by the solvent it is dissolved in, in addition to
temperature and pressure.
• When a saline solution no longer responds to the addition of a solute, it is said to be
saturated. From totally miscible (infinitely soluble) to less solubilized, there is a vast
spectrum of solubilities (such as silver chloride in water).
• The term “insoluble” is used to describe a material that does not dissolve. The equilibrium
solubility may be surpassed in certain conditions, resulting in a supersaturated solution.
• Particle size has little effect on solubility, and even the biggest particles may dissolve if
given enough time.

Factors affecting solubility

Temperature
Certain compounds dissolve more quickly in hot water. Warm water molecules vibrate quicker,
improving solute bonding and dissolving capabilities.

Solubility vs. temperature change

A common example is sugar, which dissolves more rapidly in hot water than in cold water
because of the effect of temperature on the solubility of most substances.
Pressure
• Unlike solid and liquid solutes, pressure has a large impact on the dissolvability of gaseous
solutions.
• Open a can of Coke and listen for the sound of gas escaping; this indicates that the
contents are still carbonated (that is, the carbon dioxide stays dissolved in the solution).
○ Gas solubility continues to increase with rising pressure.

Suspension Colloids
• They are bigger than the preceding two • Particles larger than a molecule but smaller
pairings of suspension particles. There are than visible particles make up colloids,
moments when it seems as if the mix is which are mixtures of colloids.
varied. • The size range of colloidal particles is from
• Stabilising agents are used in suspensions one nanometer to one billion nanometers.
to keep the particles from becoming • Because of the way the particles used to
isolated from one another. Separating make them are dispersed or scattered
the components of suspensions may be throughout the mixture, colloids are
accomplished by the use of decantation or frequently referred to as colloidal
centrifugation. dispersions.
• Salad dressing, which is a vinegar-and-water • Consider the case of milk.
concoction, is a good analogy for suspension.
Emulsion
○ The dressing’s heavier material • An emulsion is created by combining two
isolates and sinks to the bottom of or more incompatible liquids, one of which
the compartment, leaving the water to aids in the dispersion of the others.
finish it.

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• Emulsifying a liquid mixture creates an • A water-coffee oil emulsion is what goes

emulsion. on top of espresso with cream.
Properties of emulsions • When it comes to butter, it is an emulsion.
• Phase interactions between the • The lecithin in egg yolk stabilises the oil-in-
components of an emulsion may impart a water emulsion that results in mayonnaise.
foggy or hazy appearance to the mixture. • The photosensitive side of photographic
• The emulsion will seem white if the light film is coated with a silver halide emulsion
is uniformly dispersed. Because of the in gelatine.
increased dispersion of short-wavelength Alloy
light, diluted emulsions may appear blue. • To put it another way: An alloy is a mixture
When we refer to this event, we term it the of two or more metals.
Tyndall effect. It has been reported that
• Most alloys have unique properties that are
traces of it may be found in skim milk.
separate from those of their individual parts.
• Because emulsions are liquids, they lack Alloy component mass is often measured.
a stable internal structure. The droplets
• There is no one melting point for most
are spread out more or less evenly by the
alloys but rather a whole range that
liquid dispersion medium. includes both solid and liquid states.
• By mixing two liquids in different ratios, • A wide range of alloys may be found, such
different emulsions may be created. Water as brass, phosphor bronze, amalgam, steel,
in oil emulsions, on the other hand, is and copper.
dispersed throughout the oil in the form of
• Most alloys have unique properties that
water droplets.
are separate from those of their individual
Examples of emulsions parts.
• Emulsions form when oil and water are
Distillation
mixed together. Droplets of oil will enter
• To alter the phase of a mixture’s constituents,
the water as it diffuses.
distillation is a typical separation process
• As an emulsifying component, lecithin may that relies on environmental changes.
be found in egg yolks. • Heat may be used to separate a mixture
• An emulsion of water and coffee oil is used of liquids by forcing components with
to make espresso cream. different boiling points into the gas phase.
• Water and fat are emulsified together to • As a final step, the gas is redissolved back
form butter. into a liquid.
• Egg yolks contain lecithin, which aids in • To improve the purity of a material, double
the emulsification of mayonnaise, an oil- distillation is the practice of repeating the
in-water mixture. distillation process.
• A silver halide emulsion in gelatine is • Due to changes in temperature and/or
applied to the photosensitive side of pressure, the inverse process may be used
photographic film. to separate gases.
Important Terms • A distillery is a site where alcoholic
beverages are made.
Crystallisation
• The formation of emulsions occurs when Uses of distillation
oil and water are mixed. In the form of A vast range of industrial operations makes
drips, the oil will spread throughout the use of distillation, including the manufacture
water. of oil, bottled water, xylene, alcohol, paraffin,
• The emulsifying ingredient lecithin is found and kerosene, to name just a few. Various
in egg yolks and helps to create emulsions. gases may be liquefied using the liquefaction

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method. Distillation removes nitrogen, oxygen • Subcellular organelle fractionation

and argon from the air. (containing membranes/fractions of
Centrifugation membranes) Chloride removal from chalk
powder by use of membrane vesicles (MVs).
The centrifugal force is used to separate
materials in centrifugation. Particles in a • The removal of fat from milk is known as
solution may be divided into a variety of the skimming procedure.
groups based on their sizes, shapes, densities, • Cyclic isolation may be used to remove
mediums, and rotor speeds. ions from an airflow.
Application of centrifugation • Wine’s clarity and sturdiness.
• The separation of two chemically miscible • In forensic and research institutions, it
substances is accomplished using a is necessary to separate urine and blood
filtration process. samples.
• The hydrodynamic properties of • Salting out, for example, Ammonium
macromolecular systems are studied. ‘ Sulphate precipitation helps in protein
• Purification of mammalian cells. isolation.

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14 Atom and Its Structure

A unit of matter is an atom. An atom preserves Thomson’s Model of an Atom

all of an element’s chemical characteristics. It • An atom structure, according to J.J.
forms molecules, which subsequently link to Thomson, is similar to Christmas pudding
form solids, liquids, and gases. Hydrogen and because electrons are present within a
oxygen atoms make up water molecules. positive sphere.
• The nucleus, which contains protons • Thomson argued that atoms might be
and neutrons, and the outer area, which thought of as a huge positively charged
maintains the nucleus’ electrons in orbit, body with multiple little negatively charged
are the two halves of an atom. electrons spread around it, based on his
• The three basic particles that make up an discharge tube studies.
atom are protons, electrons, and neutrons. • It was called after the plum pudding model
The electrons are contained in electron of the atom. Atoms are neutral because
shells that are attached to the atom’s their positive and negative charges are
surface (negatively charged). There is just roughly balanced.
one proton and electron in a hydrogen
atom (H), and no neutrons.
Theory of Discovery of Atom
Atoms are minuscule matter-making particles
made composed of subatomic particles. Atoms
of the same element are similar and unlike
atoms of other elements in various ways.
Molecules and compounds are formed when
Fig.14.1 Thomson’s model of an atom
atoms combine in certain quantities with other
atoms. Rutherford’s Model of an Atom
• To examine an atom’s structure as
Dalton’s Atomic Theory postulated by Thomson, Ernest Rutherford
The hypothesis of the atomic theory of John undertook the ‘Gold Foil Experiment’ or
Dalton ‘ray scattering experiment.’
• Atoms are microscopic particles that can’t • This experiment used a thin gold foil to
be separated from their makeup matter. transmit a beam of light-emitting alpha
• During a chemical process, no atoms are particles (emphatically charged helium
created or destroyed. particles).
• The nature of an element’s atoms is • The alpha particles would travel through the
accurate. They are comparable in size, gold foil and be caught by a photographic
bulk, and personality. plate, he predicted.
• The nature of atoms in various elements • Many of the - particles were able to travel
varies. They don’t share the same traits as directly through the foil, while others were
one another. deflected from their planned path.
Atoms, according to Dalton, cannot be • Some were very slightly deflected, while
generated or destroyed. However, the discovery others were deflected at significant
of electrons and protons in atoms caused this angles, and around one out of every 10,000
component of Dalton’s hypothesis to collapse. particles bounced back.

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• He put it to the test by passing alpha rays The Neutrons

through a thin gold foil. J. Chadwick found that there is another
• The gold atoms, he predicted, would subatomic particle present in the atom. This
deflect the Alpha particles. particle conveys no charge and is known as a
Neutron. Along these lines, we can presume that
Thus, Rutherford presented the nuclear model a molecule comprises three sorts of particles:
of an atom based on his experiment which
suggests that Electrons carry a negative charge
• There is a lot of empty space in atoms. Protons carry a positive charge
• In the centre of the atom, the nucleus is a
strongly positive-charged substance.
Neutrons has a neutral charge
• There is an equal amount of positive and Table 14.1
negative charge in the nucleus. Valency
The Nucleus of an Atom • Valence electrons: The electrons in an
• The nucleus is found at the atom’s core. atom’s outermost orbit are known as
The nucleus is responsible for all of the valence electrons.
atom’s mass. • Chemically, the atoms that have filled the
• Orbits are the circular pathways in which outermost shell remain inactive.
electrons spin around the nucleus. • The valency, or combining ability, of an atom
• When comparing the size of the atom with is determined by the number of electrons
the nucleus, the nucleus is substantially located in its outermost shell.
smaller. • Helium, for example, has two electrons
in its outermost shell, implying that its
Nucleons: Protons and Neutrons are together
valency is two. Overall, it may share two
called Nucleons.
electrons with another element to create a
Bohr’s Model of an Atom chemical bond.

Niels Bohr (1885-1962) introduced a new model Atomic number of an element is given as: The
of the atom in 1913, in which electrons flow in number of protons in an atom is equal to the
circular orbits around the nucleus. atomic number (Z).
Bohr’s suggestions: Mass number of an element given as: Mass
• Electrons whirl around the nucleus in their Number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons.
own unique path/unattached orbit.
• While travelling in certain orbits, electrons
do not release any energy. Energy Levels
are another name for these special orbits.
• As seen in the diagram below, they are
represented by letters or numbers:

Fig.14.3
Isotopes
• The atoms of an element may exist in a
variety of forms, all with the same atomic
number but various mass values.
• Isotopes are pure compounds with
comparable chemical properties but
Fig.14.2 different physical properties.

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Application of isotopes: Some of the examples of compounds that

• The fuel of Nuclear Reactor – Isotope of show both types of chemical bonding:
Uranium • NaNO3 - Sodium Nitrate
• Treatment of Cancer – Isotope of Cobalt • (NH4)S - Ammonium Sulphide
• Treatment of Goitre – Isotope of Iodine The Ammonium cation and the Sulphide anion
Isobars are ionically coupled in ammonium sulphide,
Several elements’ atoms may have the same despite the fact that all of the atoms are
mass number but different atomic masses. non-metals. The electronegativity mismatch
Isobars are a kind of feature like this. between ammonium and the sulphur ion allows
for an ionic connection. At the same moment,
the hydrogen atoms are covalently bound to
the nitrogen atom.

Coordinate bond
A coordinate bond (sometimes referred to as a
dative covalent connection) is a kind of covalent
bond (an electron sharing pair) in which both
Isotone electrons originate from the same element. When
• Isotones are atoms with the same number two atoms share a pair of electrons, they create a
of Neutrons but different mass numbers. covalent bond. The atoms are bound together by
• The atomic number of the protons differs the attraction of the electron pair to both nuclei.
amongst the atoms.
Physical bond
• Isotones are elements that belong to two
Hydrogen Bond
or more distinct elements.
• An attractive (dipole-dipole) contact
Types of Bonds
between an electronegative atom and
There are two main types of bonds: Chemical a hydrogen atom connected to another
bond and physical bond electronegative atom is referred to as a
Chemical Bonds hydrogen bond. There is still a hydrogen
• Ionic Bond atom in this link.
• Covalent Bond • Hydrogen bonds may form between
• Coordinate Bond molecules or between different regions of
the same molecule.
Ionic bond and covalent bond
• A hydrogen bond is more durable than
• Ionic bonds are chemical bonds between
van der Waals forces, but not as strong as
two atoms in which one atom seems to
covalent or ionic connections.
donate its electron to the other.
• Hydrogen bonding exists between base sets
• Covalent bonds, on the other hand, seem
and between water particles in nucleic acids.
to involve two atoms exchanging electrons,
resulting in a more stable electron Applications involving hydrogen bonds:
configuration. • It aids in the binding of transcription
• Ionic and covalent bonding exists in certain factors to DNA as well as to one another.
substances. Polyatomic ions are among • Assist in the binding of antigen and
these compounds. antibody.
• Metal, non-metal, and hydrogen are all • Form secondary structures from
present in many of these compounds. polypeptides, such as the alpha-helix and
Another example is a metal that is ionically beta-sheet.
connected to covalently bound nonmetals. • Hold the two DNA strands together.

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Van der Waals Forces • The components that participate in a

Van der Waals Forces are weak forces that add chemical reaction are known as reactants.
to intermolecular holding between molecules. Products are the substances that are
• Molecules inherently possess energy. formed. In terms of properties, the
Their electrons are continually moving, so products vary from the reactants.
transient concentrations of electrons in
Reactants
one region or another lead to electrically
positive areas of a molecule being attracted Reactants are the ingredients in a chemical
to the electrons of another molecule. reaction that undergo a chemical transformation
• Also, adversely charged districts of one in which chemical bonds are broken and new
atom are shocked by contrarily charged ones are formed, resulting in the formation
territories of other molecules. of products. On the left side of the arrow,
reactants are specified, while products are
• The sum of the repulsive and attractive
given on the right side.
electrical forces among atoms and
molecules is known as Van der Waals forces. Product
• These forces are distinct from covalent A product is formed due to a chemical reaction.
and ionic chemical bonding in that they are The chemical bonds between the reactants
caused by fluctuations in particle charge are broken and reorganised to generate one or
density. more products once they travel through a high
Properties of Van der Waals forces energy transition state (reaching the activation
• It is additive. energy for a reaction).
• They are weaker than ionic and covalent Examples of products:
chemical bonds. The interaction between the silver cation and
• They are not directional. the chloride anion in an aqueous solution
• They act only over a concise range. The produces silver chloride, AgCl (s):
interaction is more significant when
Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)
molecules draw closer.
• They are independent of temperature, Atoms are neither generated nor destroyed
except for dipole-dipole interactions. during a chemical reaction; instead, they are
rearranged. The number and type of atoms in
Chemical Reactions
the equation’s reactants are the same as the
Introduction number and type of atoms in the products.
• A chemical reaction is a chemical change
that results in the formation of new Catalyst
compounds. It may be expressed by a • A catalyst is a substance that changes the
chemical equation that specifies the activation energy necessary for a chemical
amount and type of atoms in each molecule reaction to occur, therefore affecting the
or ion, as well as their arrangement into pace of the process. Catalysis is used as
molecules or ions. the term for this process.
• The reaction arrow may be oriented from • The reaction does not need a catalyst and
left to right or it can be a double arrow, may take part in numerous reactions at the
indicating that reactants are transformed same time.
into products and part of the products are • The only difference between a catalysed
then converted back to reactants. reaction and an uncatalyzed reaction is
• Nuclear reactions are the processes that the activation energy. The energy of the
involve the atomic nucleus. reactants or materials is unaffected.

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Mechanism of Catalyst’s working into oxygen gas and water. The addition
• Catalysts allow a different method for the of potassium permanganate raises the
reactants to become products, using lower reaction’s temperature and pace.
activation energy and alternate transition • Enzymes are catalysts that are made
state. up of proteins. They are a particular
• A catalyst could allow reactions to take sort of biocatalyst. Membrane-bound
place at a lower temperature or increase enzymes are heterogeneous catalysts,
the pace or selectivity of the process. while soluble enzymes are homogeneous
• A catalyst may be consumed during one of catalysts.
the intermediate steps, but it will be created ○ Biocatalysis is used for the commercial
again before the reaction is completed. synthesis of acrylamide and high-
Example of Catalyst: fructose corn syrup.
• The catalyst potassium permanganate is
used to break down hydrogen peroxide

Types of chemical reactions

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Combination Reactions Decomposition Reactions

Two or more chemicals combine to generate a In a decomposition reaction, a single compound
single product in a combination reaction. Calcium splits up into two or more simpler substances.
oxide (quick lime), for example, combines swiftly These reactions need energy in the form of
with water to generate slaked lime (calcium heat, light or electricity. Hence, decomposition
hydroxide) while releasing a lot of energy. reactions are of three types:
CaO(s) + H2O  Ca(OH)2

Thermal decomposition

Photolysis

Electrolysis

Table 14.2

Displacement Reactions but never go to completion. Irreversible

During displacement reactions, usually, a colour reactions occur only in the forward direction
change is observed, and a more reactive metal/ and reach completion.
non-metal displaces a less reactive metal/non- Redox Reactions – Oxidation and Reduction
metal from its salt solution. For example, when Reactions
a clean iron nail is dipped in a copper sulphate Redox reactions are those that have oxidation
solution for about 20 minutes, the iron nail and reduction as two of their half-reactions.
becomes brownish in colour and the blue Originally, oxidation was defined as the addition
colour of the copper sulphate solution fades. of oxygen to a material. Later on, oxidation
This reaction indicates that iron has displaced was defined as the removal of hydrogen from
copper from the copper sulphate solution. a material. Nowadays, oxidation is the process
of losing electrons, whereas reduction is the
process of obtaining electrons.

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Reactions in which heat is released along with
the formation of products are called exothermic
reactions. The burning of fuel is an example In the above oxidation reaction, Mg is converted
of an exothermic reaction. Reactions in which into Mg2+ ion and in the process, it loses two
heat is absorbed are known as endothermic electrons. Similarly, Cl gains electrons. Thus,
reactions. Mg is oxidised, and Cl is reduced.

Reversible and Irreversible Reactions Isomerization: In an isomerization reaction, a

compound’s structural arrangement is changed,
Reversible reactions are those which occur in
but its net atomic composition remains the
the forward as well as in the backward direction
same.

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Oxidising agent (Oxidant) It is a substance that accepts electrons in the chemical reaction, i.e.
electron acceptors are oxidising agents. All the positively charged
species behave as oxidising agents. Oxidising agents are Lewis acids.
Reducing agent (Reductant) The substance which donates electrons in a chemical reaction is
called a reducing agent, i.e. electron donors are reducing agents.
All the negatively charged species behave as reducing agents.
Reducing agents are Lewis base.
Table 14.3

Factors Affecting Reaction Rate • Temperature: When the temperature rises,

Chemical kinetics states that variables that the response rate often rises as well.
enhance the kinetic energy of the reactants • The presence of catalysts: Catalysts (such
(up to a degree) will increase the pace of a as enzymes) lower the activation energy of
chemical reaction, increasing the possibility a chemical reaction while speeding it up
of the reactants interacting with each other. without being absorbed.
Conditions that limit the possibility of • Reactant physical state: Thermal action
reactants clashing with one another are also may bring reactants in the same phase
likely to slow down the reaction rate. The together, while surface area and agitation
following are the key elements that influence have an impact on interactions involving
response time: reactants in separate phases.
• Reactant concentration: More collisions per • Pressure: Raising the pressure in gaseous
unit of time come from a greater reactant processes causes more collisions between
concentration, resulting in a quicker reaction reactants, which speeds up the reaction
rate (except for zero-order reactions.) rate.

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15 Periodic Table

Classification is necessary for comprehending • Only 56 components are detected according

the characteristics of separate elements to the Newland Law of Octaves. This was
in a periodic table. Elements having similar not taken into account at all.
characteristics are grouped together to make • It’s only permitted up to Calcium.
them easier to understand. In the past, there
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Periodic Table
have been attempts to categorise elements:
• Dmitri Mendeleev studied 63 elements
• The original divisions of elements were
and compounds at the time. Atoms with
metals and non-metals. This only served a
comparable characteristics appeared often
limited function due to two factors:
when he arranged the elements by atomic
○ All of the components were organised mass. He named it “Mendeleev’s Periodic
using just these two classes. In addition, Law” in 1869.
the metals group was massive.
• An element’s atomic mass dictates its
○ Some elements have characteristics physical and chemical characteristics.
of both metals and nonmetals, making Mendeleev used a table called the periodic
classification difficult. table to categorise the elements.
• Following that, four noteworthy attempts
at component classification were made: Key features of mendeleev’s periodic table
○ Dobereiner’s Triads • The periodic table grouped elements.
○ Newlands’ Law of Octaves • They are referred to as “periods” and
“horizontal rows.” The periodic table has six
○ Mendeleev’s Periodic Law & Periodic
periods. These times have two unique sets
Tables
of components.
○ Modern Periodic Table
• Component qualities throughout a period
Dobereiner’s Triads show a continuous gradation (increase or
• J.W. Dobereiner, a German physicist, fall) from left to right.
invented triads in 1829. The Triad’s three
• ‘Groups’ and ‘columns’ are the vertical
parts have similar chemical and physical
columns. The letters I through VIII signify
characteristics.
eight separate groups (Roman numerals).
• To increase atomic mass, the middle
• Groups I–VI have A and B subgroups.
element’s mass is almost equal to the
• Elements of the same group are chemically
other two elements’ arithmetic means,
comparable. Their physical and chemical
and its characteristics are intermediate.
characteristics are symmetrical.
• Lithium, sodium, and potassium have
atomic masses of 7, 23, and 39. 7 x 39 = 23. Advantages of Mendeleev periodic table
Newlands’ Law of Octaves • He left space for yet-to-be-identified
• In 1864, English scientist John Alexander components. For instance, boron.
Newlands organised the atomic weights • This table also includes the noble gases.
ascending. • Additionally, it modified the atomic masses
• According to his observations, the first of a few atoms.
element’s characteristics were quite
similar to those of the eighth element. He Limitations of Mendeleev periodic table
coined the term “The Law of Octaves.” • Isotopes are difficult to locate.

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• While hydrogen is in group 1A, it has several • Each proton in an atom’s nucleus has its
features with halogens. own atomic number, Z.
• The first category includes elements like • Groups and Periods appear in 18 vertical
copper and silver that are not alkali metals columns and seven horizontal rows,
(lithium, sodium, and so on). respectively.
• Gold and platinum, for example, are classed • Valence electron-rich elements are
based on their chemical qualities. maintained together in groups.
• Due to their qualities, elements with a • The number of shells grows when one falls
higher atomic mass have been prioritised in a group.
in some fields. Example: Cobalt has a larger • Shells occupied by the same number of
atomic mass (58.9) than nickel (58.7). elements from the same time period are
Modern Periodic Table retained.
Atomic numbers determine an element’s • Each period sees the birth of a new
physical and chemical characteristics. The electronic shell.
elements occur at regular intervals if sorted by • The number of elements in each period is
atomic number. governed by the distribution of electrons in
various shells.
Anomalies of modern periodic table • An element’s valence electrons also have
• Isotopes are collected at a single spot. a role in determining the number of bonds
• Since atomic masses are integers, there is it forms.
no element between Hydrogen and Helium.

Table 15.2 Modern Periodic Table

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Features of elements in modern periodic table • Metallic character: Metallic Character

The groups or families are represented by the refers to an atom’s capacity to lose an
columns, while the periods are represented by electron. At this point, the metallic aspect
the rows. diminishes from left to right. This is due to
an increase in the nuclear charge.
Groups:
○ Non-metallic character, on the other
The periodic table has a total of 18 columns.
hand, rises from left to right over
In order from one to eighteen, each grouping
time. And as the number of the group
has a unique number. For any element in the
becomes larger, metallic Character
same group, the valence electron count and
develops; it may easily lose one
the electron configuration are the same.
electron.
• Group 1 elements all have the same number
of valence electrons, one. • Ionisation energy is the amount of energy
necessary to extract an electron from an
• There are seven valence electrons for all
isolated gaseous atom. It gradually ascends
elements in group 17; the only difference
as it advances from left to right. This is
is that fluorine has five shells and iodine
caused by the nuclear charge shifting from
has five.
left to right over time. The ionisation energy
Periods: decreases as the group’s atomic charge
• Periods refer to the periodic table’s seven decreases, however, there are numerous
horizontal rows. In each period, all the exceptions.
elements have the same atomic number. • Electropositive character decreases from
• The periods have been numbered from 1 to 7. left to right and increases as the group
In each period, a new shell begins filling up. progresses. This is owing to a progressive
• The first stage is the shortest. H and He decrease in metallic Character from left to
make up the whole thing. right.
• The second and third periods are called • As the atomic radius rises and the ionisation
“short periods” because they each include energy decreases, the fundamental
eight components. character of Oxides increases. This is
• The fourth and fifth layers have 18 items. due to a rise in the metallic character or
• The sixth and seventh periods each include electropositivity of components. From the
32 components, making them extremely top to the bottom, the acidic nature of
long. oxides reduces as the non-metallic nature
of features increases.
Trends in modern periodic table
• Valency and valence electrons: Valency Types of Elements
increases and then decreases as a period • Main group elements: Groups 1 and 2 on the
moves from left to right. However, while left and 13 to 17 on the right of the periodic
moving from left to right inside a period, it table include representative or significant
remains constant down in a group. As we group elements. Their outermost shells are
go through the group, the valence electron electron-deficient, having less than eight
increases in size but stays constant. electrons in each.
• Atomic size: It gradually decreases from • Noble gases: Nebulous gases are found
left to right as the nuclear charge increases in Group 18, which is on the far right side
due to the nucleus’s substantial positive of the periodic table. A distinctive feature
charge. Atomic size decreases in a group of these molecules is the presence of an
as a result of a decrease in atomic charges eight-electron outer shell (except Helium
and the development of a new shell. with 2 electrons). In other words, they have

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no total capacity or valency. (c) They are • Metals: Metals are found in the periodic
basically inert since they do not respond. table’s left-hand section. Alkali metals (Li,
There are no solids or liquids in the Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) and alkaline earth metals
category, just gases. (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) are strong metallic
elements that belong to groups 1 and 2,
• Transition elements: The middle block of
respectively.
the periodic table (groups 3 to 12) contains
transition elements. Their two outermost • Non-metals: The periodic table’s right-hand
shells are incomplete. Since these section is made up of non-metals. Groups 17
elements represent a transition (change) and 16 are occupied by strong non-metallic
from the most electropositive element to elements such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At)
the most electronegative element, they are and chalcogens (O, S, Se, Te, Po).
called transition elements. • Metalloids: They may be found beginning
○ Their essential characteristics are: with group 13 (Boron) and ending with
group 16. (Polonium).
▪ They all have very high melting and
boiling points Four Blocks in Periodic table as per the
▪ These are very good at transferring Electronic Configuration
heat and electricity. • S - Block
▪ The magnet is drawn to certain • P - Block
things. • D - Block
▪ The catalyst is made up of most of • F - Block
these parts. S – block (‘s’ means ‘sharp’)
▪ They exhibit variable valencies. • Alkali metals and alkaline earth metals,
often referred to as groups 1 and 2, are
• Inner transition elements: These are also
elements in the periodic table of elements
known as rare-earth elements.
that belong to the s-block.
• There are 14 components in each of these
• Helium is also included in the S-block (He).
two series. The elements 58 to 71 make
up the first series, termed lanthanides. • The fundamental quantum number “n” fills
(From Ce to Lu) They are all categorised the s orbital.
as elements belonging to the same • The s orbital has a maximum capacity of
group (group 3, period 6) as element two electrons.
57, lanthanum, due to their striking • As a consequence, they have a valency of
similarities (La). 1 or 2.
• The actinides, which include 14, are the P-block:
second group of rare-earth elements. The last six elements in the periodic table,
• It is made up of the elements 90–103 (Th– with the exception of Helium, are categorised
Lr), which are all arranged in the same as P-block elements. With the exception
order as the element 89, actinium (Ac) of hydrogen and helium, all nonmetals,
(group 3, period 7). Nonetheless, for your semimetals, and transition metals are
convenience, they are included below the categorised as p-block elements. The following
main periodic chart. are the P-components blocks:
• The outermost shells of three rare-earth • Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and
elements (lanthanoids and actinoids) are halogens, as well as a variety of other
missing. As a result, they’re sometimes common components, are all present.
referred to as inner transition elements.
• Other molecules may interact with
It’s remarkable that lanthanum isn’t a
elements by losing, gaining, or swapping
lanthanoid and actinium isn’t an actinide.
valence electrons.

76 Periodic Table
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• Covalent compounds are often formed by • This material has rather high melting and
them. boiling temperatures.
D-block: • Coloured salts are often produced.
D-block elements are transition metals of • They work well as catalysts in most cases.
element groups 3-12. D-Block elements: F-block:
• Valence electrons can be found inside and In the lanthanide and actinide series, inner
outside each shell. transition elements like lanthanum and
• Highly reactive, electropositive alkali actinium are often found. These are metals
metals and covalent compound building that have the following characteristics:
elements behave differently from D-block • The melting points of these materials are
elements. They’re known as “transition quite high.
elements” because of this. • Oxidation states vary.
• Capacity for manufacturing coloured salts.

Periodic Table 77
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16 Minerals and Ores

A mineral is a naturally occurring material Crushing and Pulverisation

that contains one or more metals or their The ore is often encountered as huge rock
compounds and is composed mostly of these fragments. Jaw crushers and grinders are used
elements. Materials having a special chemical to smash the ore. A Jaw is made by squeezing
composition, crystalline structure, colour, and ore between crusher plates. In this case, one
hardness are called Minerals. Examples include crusher plate is stationary while the other
copper pyrite (CuFeS2), calamine (ZnCO3), and rotates.
other minerals.
Concentration or Dressing of Ore
• An ore is a mineral that contains significant
amounts of metal and may be economically Ores are usually mixed with earthy impurities
mined. like sand, clay, and limestone. Gangue or matrix
is the term for these ore impurities. The Ore
List of some common Ores of Metals: Concentration The process of eliminating gangue
Fe2O3 Hematite Ore of iron from powdered ore is known as dressing.
CuFeS2 Copper pyrite Ore of copper The following are important methods for
MnO2 Pyrolusite Ore of concentrating ores among the many available:
manganese • Gravity separation (hydraulic washing):
Earthy impurities (low specific gravity)
PbS Galena Ore of lead are removed from heavier metallic ore
Al2O3.2H2O Bauxite Ore of particles by washing with water.
aluminium • Magnetic separation method: By washing:
ZnS Zinc blend Ore of zinc with water, the lighter (low specific gravity)
earthy impurities are separated from the
AgCl Horn silver Ore of silver
heavier metallic ore particles.
HgS Cinnabar Ore of • Froth flotation method: A process often
mercury employed in the mining sector in which
Table 16.1 particles of interest are physically separated
General Principles for Extraction of Metals from a liquid phase because of variations
• Metallurgy is the process of obtaining in the propensity of air bubbles to stick
metals from ores and purifying them. preferentially to the surface of the particles,
determined by their hydrophobicity. This
• The kind of metal and the content of the
method is mainly applied to sulphide ores,
ore dictate the technique utilised.
such as galena (PbS), and zincblende.
• The amount of metal in an ore dependson
• Chemical method: The ore is treated with
the impurities present as well as the
a chemical reagent that dissolves the
chemical composition of the ore.
ore while leaving insoluble contaminants
• The key steps in the extraction of metals behind. A chemical technique is then used
from their ores are as follows: to extract the mineral from the solution.
○ Crushing and pulverisation
Calcination
○ Concentration or dressing of the ore
• Calcination is the process of heating
○ Calcination or Roasting of the ore concentrated ore in a small amount of air
○ Reduction of metal oxides to free metal to remove moisture, hydration water, and
○ Purification and refining of metal. volatile gaseous compounds.

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• The ore is heated to a temperature that • The oxides of the metals are combined
prevents it from melting. with coke and cooked in an appropriate
• The following are two instances of furnace. Carbon, or CO, oxidises the
calcination: oxide and converts it to free metal.
○ CaCO3 →CaO + CO2↑ (Calcined ore is For instance,
left) (Limestone) ZnO + C → Zn + CO
○ AI2O3.2H2O → AI2O3 + 2H2O↑ (Bauxite) ZnO + CO → Zn + CO2

Roasting Explanation for why calcium cannot be

Roasting is the process in which concentrated extracted from CaO by the carbon reduction
ore is heated to a temperature that is process:
insufficient to melt it with a free supply of air. • An additional component called flux is
During roasting, the following changes occur: introduced to the ore during the process
of reduction. A slag is made by mixing
• The ore is dried.
It with impurities. A Slag is a potentially
• Removal of volatile contaminants like
flammable substance.
arsenic, sulphur, phosphorus, and organic
○ Impurities + Flux → Fusible product
materials.
(slag)
• Sulphide ores are converted into oxides.
• Flux is a substance that is mixed with the
• Roasting and calcining are typically
ore during smelting (a) to reduce the melting
• conducted in a reverberatory or multiple point, (b) to make the ore conducting, and
hearth furnace. (c) to remove all the impurities (acidic and
It can be of two types: basic).
• Oxidised roasting: Ores, when heated in FeO + SiO2 → FeSIO3 (fusible slag) Impurity
the presence of O2 get converted into their acidic flux
oxides and impurities, and are converted
SiO2 + CaO → CaSIO3 (fusible slag) Impurity
into their volatile form, which does escape.
basic flux
4FeS2 + 11O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2 • Aluminium is a poor conductor of electricity;
In a reverberatory furnace, roasting or however, when it is combined with cryolite
calcinations may be carried out. (flux), it becomes an excellent conductor
• Chlorinating roasting: This is done primarily and the melting point is lowered. Thus,
in the case of silver ore. CaF2, KF, and cryolite are all examples of
Ag2S + NaCI → 2AgCI + Na2S neutral flux.

Smelting Refining of Metals

• Smelting is the process of extracting metal Except in the electrolytic reduction process,
from its fused (molten) condition. metals created in any other method are
• The metal oxide-containing roasted or often impure. These impurities may include
calcined ore is combined with a reduction (i) other metals, (ii) the metal’s unreduced
agent and heated to a high temperature. oxide, (iii) non-metals such as carbon, silicon,
• In this case, a less electropositive metal phosphorus, and sulphur, and (iv) flux or slag.
ore of Zn, Pb, Fe etc., is treated with a The following procedures may be used to refine
powerful reducing agent such as C, H2, CO crude metal:
etc. Liquation
Carbon reduction process: • The impure metal is added onto a
• Carbon, the cheapest available reducing reverberatory furnace’s sloping hearth and
agent, is used to extract lead, zinc, iron, slowly heated to a temperature just above
and tin, among other metals. the melting point of the metal. The pure

80 Minerals and Ores

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metal was washed away, leaving impurities nonvolatile components by evaporating

that were infusible. them. The vapours of the metal or its
• This procedure is used to purify easily compounds are then condensed into a
flammable metals such as lead, tin, and more or less pure state.
so on. Electrolytic refining:
Poling • Electrolysis is used to purify a variety of
• Poling is the process of impure molten metals, including silver, copper, tin, and zinc.
metal being mixed with bamboo or other • An impure metal piece serves as the
green wood. The hydrocarbons in the anode. The cathode of the electrolytic cell
pole oxidise any metal oxide that may be is a narrow strip of pure metal. Pure metal
present as a contaminant. deposits at the cathode when a suitable
• This process is used to purify tin and metal salt solution serves as an electrolyte.
copper. • At the same time, there are more
Distillation electropositive pollutants in the solution.
• It is a method of separating a metal or its Less electropositive metals disintegrate
chemical compounds from the charge’s and deposit as anode muck below the
anode.

Minerals and Ores 81

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17 Carbon and Its Compounds

Carbon is the building block of organic chemistry • There are several differences between the
nd is found in all living organisms. CO2 has various structures. Graphite is a conductor
an atomic number of six and is designated of electricity, while diamond is a conductor.
by the letter C. Aside from hydrogen and • Nature’s carbon is not limited to Q-carbon
oxygen, carbon is the most plentiful element and fullerenes; there are many more
discovered by humans (hydrogen, helium, and types of carbon (which are magnetic and
oxygen are found in higher sums, by mass). fluorescent).
Within the Earth’s crust, there are fifteen of • Even while breathing pure carbon is
these creatures. perfectly safe, tiny particles like soot may
• More than one million different compounds be dangerous to the lungs. As a result,
may be formed from the combination of nontoxic materials like graphite and
carbon and other elements. Carbon is often charcoal have been developed.
referred to as the “King of the Elements.” • Fruit flies are harmed by carbon
Diamonds and other carbon-based nanoparticles, despite the fact that they
hard materials may be manufactured of are not harmful to humans.
elemental carbon or soft materials such as • Carbon atoms have a valence of +4,
cotton (graphite). indicating that they may form covalent
• Carbon is formed in huge and extremely bonds with four different elements at once.
massive stars as a result of a mechanism It is possible to find carbon monoxide’s
called the triple-alpha interaction. Helium +2 oxidation state when it combines with
nuclei mix in this technique. During a other compounds.
supernova, the carbon in the remains of • Isotopes of carbon are found naturally
a dying giant star spreads out and may in three forms. Unlike carbon-12 and
combine together to produce new stars carbon-13, carbon-14 is a radioactive
and worlds. There are several uses for isotope that has a half-life of about 5730
carbon derivatives. years.
Properties of Carbon: • Cosmic rays clash with nitrogen in the
• Carbon has the highest melting point of upper atmosphere to produce carbon-14.
any element. Soil, living beings, and living biological
entities all contain carbon-14, while rocks
• In terms of temperature, diamond melts at
do not. Carbon has a total of 15 recognised
3550°C, whereas carbon melts at 3800°C.
isotopes.
• Since the dawn of time, carbon has been
• Carbon dioxide, limestone, and dolomite
recognised as an uncharged element.
are examples of inorganic carbon sources.
• Graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon Coal, oil, peat, and methane are examples
are the only three allotropes of pure carbon of organic sources.
found in nature, in contrast to the vast
majority of other elements (soot). Allotropes
• The term allotrope describes the existence
• Diamonds are used in their elemental
of more than one kind of element in the
form for drilling/cutting and as pencils,
same physical state. Allotropes may have
oils, and lubricants. Charcoal is used to
a diverse range of chemical and physical
eliminate chemicals, flavourings, and
properties.
odours. Radiocarbon dating makes use of
• Graphite and diamond, for example, are
the carbon-14 isotope.
both solid-state allotropes of carbon.

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Although graphite is flexible, diamond is exposed to high temperatures, high heat,

very hard. and a lack of oxygen.
• Allotropes of phosphorus come in a variety • The purest kind of coal is anthracite. It
of colours, including red, yellow, and white. has a carbon content of between 94 and
• Pressure, temperature, and light 95 per cent. Bituminous coal is the most
exposure may cause allotrope changes in common kind of coal; it is thick, heavy, and
components. generates a smoky flame.

Examples of allotropes Wood charcoal

• Diamond is made up of carbon atoms • Wood charcoal is formed when a little
that are bonded together to create a quantity of air is present while burning
tetrahedral grid. The atoms in graphite wood. Destructive wood distillation is the
cling to hexagonal cross-sectional sheets. technical term for this process.
Graphene and fullerenes are two more • There are many pores and brittleness in the
carbon allotropes. material known as charcoal. As a result, it
• Oxygen allotropes include O2, O3, and is a very good sorbent.
ozone. Gaseous, liquid, and solid states are • Absorbing colour and scent from solutions
all possible for these allotropes. and the surrounding environment is what
• There are many stable allotropes of charcoal powder does best. Charcoal also
phosphorus. All phosphorus allotropes are serves as an excellent deodorizer and a
liquid, unlike oxygen allotropes. powerful diuretic.

Allotropes of carbon Animal charcoal

Coal Animal charcoal (also known as Bone charcoal)
• Coal is generated in nature when the is produced by destructively distilling bones.
wood is ‘carbonised.’ Carbonisation is Amorphous carbon accounts for about 10%
the conversion of wood to coal when it is and 12% of the carbon in the atmosphere.

84 Carbon and Its Compounds

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Sugar charcoal • C60, the most well-known fullerene, was

• Sugar is made by heating cane sugar given the name buckminsterfullerene in
without adding any air to the mixture. honour of Buckminster Fuller, an American
Amorphous carbon in its purest form may architect and originator of the geodesic
be found in sugar charcoal. dome.
• Sugar charcoal is ground to a particle size • The symmetry of the C60 atom is incredible.
of about 5 and heated in a vacuum to about It has twenty hexagonal and twelve
1000 K to generate activated charcoal. pentagonal carbon atoms in an aromatic
• The adsorption capacity of activated fused-ring structure. The arrangement
charcoal is much higher than that of other bends and closes to produce a soccer-
types of charcoal. ballshaped molecule. As a result, buckyball
is a common nickname for it. Diamond and
Lampblack graphite are visibly distinguishable from
• Tar and high-carbon vegetable oils are fullerene.
turned black when burnt in a room with • The qualities and uses of fullerenes are as
limited access to fresh air, causing the soot follows:
that results from the combustion to settle
○ Because the balls may glide between
on moist blankets hanging in the space.
the surfaces, they are great lubricants.
• This fine, dark powder has a glossy sheen
○ Alkali C60 compounds (A3C60) are
and is known as lamp black. Among its
also superconducting at temperatures
many applications is the production of
between 10 and 40 degrees Celsius.
black paints and stains as well as carbon
sheets and printer ink. Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are naturally occurring
Carbon black
compounds that are fully made of hydrogen and
• When tar and vegetable oils (which have
carbon atoms; they include a single hydrogen
a high carbon content) are burned in an
atom and are used to denote functional groups.
environment with restricted air supply,
They are typically colourless, hydrophobic, and
soot settles on damp blankets hanging in a
odorous. Hydrocarbons are used extensively
room, resulting in lamp black.
throughout nature, including in the generation
• Lampblack is a dark powder that has been
of fossil fuels and the development of trees
finely milled and has a satin finish. It’s
and plants. Carotenoids, commonly known
used to make India ink, printer’s ink, black
as pigments, are present in carrots and
paints and stains, and carbon sheets.
green foliage. Hydrocarbons are present in
Gas Carbon and Petroleum Coke transportation and motor fuel, compressed
• When tar and high-carbon vegetable oils natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas
are burnt in a closed space with little fresh (LPG), and cooking gas (LPG).
air, soot collects on moist blankets, turning Types of hydrocarbons
them lamp black.
Apart from alcohols, aldehydes, and carboxylic
• Lampblack is a fine, dark powder. Graphite acids, hydrocarbons are the most fundamental
is used to manufacture carbon sheets and organic molecules. They are categorised as
printer ink. follows:
Fullerenes Saturated hydrocarbons
Fullerenes are carbon allotropes found in both • Hydrocarbons, together with alcohols,
interstellar dust and geological formations on aldehydes, and carboxylic acids, are the
Earth. They are massive spherical cage-like most basic organic molecules.
molecules with formulae such as C32, C50, • They are classified into the following
C60, C70, C76, and C84. groups:

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Alkanes Alkenes and alkynes both have at least one

• These contain just single bonds; for double bond, whereas alkynes include at least
example, methane, CH4 is an alkane when one triple bond.
n=1 (a single carbon atom). When n=2, Alkenes
C2H6 is generated through the formation
Double bonds are present in these compounds.
of four covalent bonds surrounding each
We don’t have a valid alkene when n=1. When
carbon. Thus, CnH(2n+2) becomes the
n=2 is reached, C₂H₄ (ethene) is formed, and
generic equation for alkanes.
when n=3 is reached, C₃H₆ (propene) is formed.
• Organic compounds are named according As a result, CnH(2n) is the general formula for
to their carbon atom count, with one atom alkenes.
denoting meth, two atoms denoting eth,
Alkene structures
three atoms denoting prop, four atoms
denoting but, five atoms denoting pent, six Alkenes include a bivalent sigma and pi
atoms denoting hex, seven atoms denoting connection between two carbon atoms. The
hept, eight atoms denoting oct, nine atoms sigma bond is comparable to an alkane, but
denoting non, and ten atoms denoting. the pi bond is more reactive.
• Alkanes are chemical compounds made Reactions of alkenes and alkynes: Pi bonds
of single-bonded carbon and hydrogen make alkenes and alkynes more reactive than
atoms. Chain alkanes, cycloalkanes, and alkanes.
branched alkanes are the three types. Key points
• Alkanes are the simplest kind of compound. • Hydrogenation, halogenation, and
They are totally made of hydrogen and hydrohalogenation of alkenes and alkynes.
carbon. Each carbon molecule is made • They are key polymerizing reagents (an
up of four bonds, while each hydrogen important industrial application).
atom is made up of a single solid bond. • Hydrogenation processes use platinum,
Chemists prefer line-angle equations over palladium, or rhodium as catalysts.
dense underlying formulae because they • Alkynes begin with ethyne, C2H2.
are easier to draught.
Cyclic or closed chain hydrocarbons
Name M o l e c u l a r Condensed structural • Cyclic hydrocarbons are generated
Formula Formula Methane when atoms combine to form a ring. The
presence of carbon in the structure of
Methane CH4 CH4 cyclic hydrocarbons acts as a powerful
reminder that they are organic compounds.
Ethane C2H4 CH3CH3 By definition, an organic compound must
Propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 include at least one carbon atom.

Butane C4H10 CH3(CH2)2CH3 Structure

• When reading or coming over a cyclic
Pentane C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3 hydrocarbon structure, the word ring is
Table 17.1 used. Their cyclic structure is similar to
that of a ring. It is not necessary for this
Unsaturated hydrocarbon
ring to be circular. That is the peculiarity
In this situation, a double or triple bond joins at of cyclic hydrocarbons; depending on the
least two carbon atoms. Due to the increased number of carbon atoms bound together,
reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbons, double they may take on a variety of configurations.
and triple bonds may be rapidly dissolved and • Cyclopropane, for example, creates
anything applied to them. Alkenes and alkynes a triangle. This is because the ring is
are two forms of unsaturated hydrocarbons. composed of just three carbon atoms.

86 Carbon and Its Compounds

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at least one carbon atom that is doubly

linked to another carbon atom.
• Cycloalkyne: Additionally, this molecule is
uncommon since it has at least one carbon
atom that is triple linked to another carbon
atom.
Isomerism
• Isomerism refers to the finding of two
or more compounds that have the same
chemical formula but exhibit distinct
characteristics. Eg.
Fig.17.1 Structure of Cyclopropane

On the other hand, cyclohexane forms a hexagon

and has six carbon atoms bonded together.
Carbon and Its Component 8 Similarities in the
• The atoms in these molecules are the same
cyclohexane and cyclopropane structures:
number and form. The only difference
between them is the composition of the
atoms. They are molecules with various
structures. These molecules are known as
isomers.
• Isomers are molecules that have the same
Fig. 17.2: Cyclohexane Structure chemical formula but differ structurally.
• Isomers exhibit a range of physical features.
1. Both are composed of carbon and hydrogen
• The functional groups of isomers from the
atoms.
same homologous series are identical. As
2. Both of their structures are ring-shaped.
result, their chemical characteristics are
3. Both rely on covalent bonding to connect identical.
each individual link.
Covalent bonds are used to form these cyclic
structures. A covalent bond is formed when
two atoms share electrons with one another.
The Different Types and Naming
Due to the diversity of hydrocarbons, the
number of cyclic hydrocarbons available on the
chemical market is relatively large. Fortunately,
scientists use creative language to distinguish
between the several varieties:
• Cycloalkane: This term refers to cyclic
hydrocarbons composed entirely of carbon Fig. 17.3: Isomerism
atoms that are single attached to other
carbon atoms; a compound composed Alcohol
entirely of single bonds is said to be • Unnatural substances that include
saturated. hydroxyl groups (-OH) connected to alkyl
or substituted alkyl rings are known as
• Cycloalkene: Although they are less
alcohols. A basic acyclic alcohol’s formula
prevalent, these cyclic hydrocarbons have

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is CnH2n+1OH, ethanol is often referred to Ethers

as “alcohol.” • Ethers are compounds of the general
• The expression alcohol is commonly used formula R–O–R, Ar–O–R, or Ar–O–Ar.
to refer to ethanol, the source of alcohol • To generally refer to ethers, one mentions
found in alcoholic drinks. the two groups connected to oxygen and
• Ethanol is a colourless, volatile liquid with then adds the term ether:
a mild odour that can be acquired by the
fermentation of sugars. (Industrially, it is
more commonly obtained by ethylene
hydration-the reaction of ethylene with
water in the presence of phosphoric acid.)
• Ethanol is the most widely used depressant in
the world and has been for thousands of years.
Classification of alcohol
• Monohydric alcohols: Containing two OH
groups e.g. CH3OH methyl alcohol
• Dihydric alcohols: Containing two OH
Isomerism of ethers
groups e.g. HO-CH2-OH
• Ethers and alcohols exhibit functional
• Polyhydric alcohols: Containing more than
similarity. E.g.- CH3OCH3 & CH3CH2OH
two OH groups e.g. CH2OHCHOHCH2OH
• Different alkyl groups connected to bivalent
Phenols O atoms generate metamerism in ethers
• Phenols are aromatic chemicals with containing at least four carbon atoms.
directly linked hydroxyl groups to the
Physical and chemical properties of ether
nucleus. Phenols are organic compounds
• A net dipole exists in ether molecules. The
with the general formula ArOH, where Ar
polarity of C—O bonds is due to this.
is either phenyl, a substituted phenyl, or
another aryl group (e.g., naphthyl). • Its boiling point is somewhat lower than
that of alcohol.
• Phenols are distinguished from alcohols by
the presence of an OH group immediately • Ether has the same solubility potential as
linked to an aromatic ring. alcohol.
• Because both phenols and alcohols include • Electrophilic substitution reaction: The
the –OH group, the two families have some electrophilic substitution reaction occurs
resemblance. in ether. Halogenation and Friedel-Crafts
reaction are two electrophilic substitution
reactions.

Fig. 17.4: Ethers

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18 Acid, Base and Salts

Acids red in the presence of an acid, while

phenolphthalein turns colourless.
Hydrogen ions (H+) are formed when acid
dissolved in water is reacted with water. • In the presence of active metals, acids
Hydrochloric HCl, for example, dissociates generate hydrogen gas as a byproduct.
into hydrochloric acid and hydrochloric acid in Acid + Metal —→ Salt + Hydrogen gas
water (aq) • Hydrogen and metal carbonates react with
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) acids.
Some examples: • Carbon dioxide gas is formed when dilute
• Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid HCl reacts with sodium carbonate or
(HCl). sodium hydrogen carbonate. The following
• Cola contains carbonic acid (H2CO3). is a list of the results we received:
• Lemons and fruits contain ascorbic acid ○ Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) +
(vitamin C). H2O(l) + CO2(g)↑
• Oranges and lemons, two common citrus ○ NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) +
fruits, both contain citric acid. H2O(l) + CO2(g) ↑
• Acetic acid is a component of vinegar. • Salt and water are the products of the
• Tea contains tannic acid. reaction between acids and bases. When
• In labs, nitric acid (HNO3) is utilised. equal moles of acid and base are combined,
the acid is neutralised.
• In labs, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is utilised.
○ Example: On adding sufficient HCl, the basic
Properties of acids
properties of NaOH and acidic properties
Acids are distinguished from other substances of HCl disappear. The process is therefore
by the characteristics of their aqueous called neutralisation. The reaction between
solutions, which include: sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
• Electric current is controlled by forms sodium chloride and water.
electrolytes, which is why they are called
electrolytes. Electrolytes may be found in HCl(aq) + naOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
acidic aqueous solutions. • Corrosive nature: Acids are corrosive
because of their ability to damage a variety
• Some acids are powerful electrolytes
of materials, including metal oxides and
because of the enormous number of ions
metal hydroxides.
they create when ionised in water.
○ Chemical reactions occur between
• Another acid is a weak electrolyte that
is essentially non-ionized when it is metal and its surroundings as it
dissolved in water. An acidic flavour might corrodes. In the presence of moisture
be detected. or acids, metals may rust. For example,
Silver reacts with sulphur in the air to
• Acid is found in lemons, vinegar, and sour
form silver sulphide and turns black.
candy.
• There are certain markers that are affected Classification of acids:
by the presence of acids. • Based on their occurrence, i.e., Natural
• There are two primary indicators: litmus acids and Mineral acids:
and phenolphthalein. Litmus blue becomes ○ Natural acids: Acids originating from
natural sources are referred to as

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“organic acids,” however the term Some examples of bases are:

“natural acids” is used interchangeably. • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda
Acids such as acetic acid (CH3COOH), is a common ingredient in dishwashing
oxalic acid (C2H2O4), and methanoic soaps.
acid (HCOOH) are just a few examples. • Soaps for the bath include potassium
○ Mineral acids: There are acids hydroxide (KOH) or potash.
generated from minerals that are called • Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)/lime water is
mineralacids. Inorganic acids, artificial used as a whitewashing ingredient.
acids, and synthetic acids are all terms • Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)/milk of
used to describe mineral acids, for magnesia is used to control acidity.
example. Use HCl or H2SO4 or HNO3 or
• Ammonium hydroxide is an ingredient in
H2CO3 as examples.
hair dyes (NH4OH).
• Acids may be classified as follows
dependingcupon the elements present. Bases are present in many household products:
• Many cleaners include basic ammonia.
○ Oxyacid: Acids that contain hydrogen
and oxygen are called oxyacids. For • NaOH is often found in drain cleaners.
example, Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric • Extra stomach acid may be neutralised with
acid (HNO3), and phosphoric acid antacids, which are formed of bases like
(H3PO4) are oxyacids. magnesium hydroxide or sodium hydrogen
○ Hydracid: Acids that contain hydrogen carbonate.
and nonmetallic element (s)except Classification of base
oxygen is known as hydracids. For eg.,
Bases are classed as strong or weak depending
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Hydrocyanic
on how much dissociation occurs in their
acid (HCN) are hydracids.
solution.
• The amount of hydrogen ions (H+) produced
Strong base: Strong bases are entirely
by acid, when dissolved in water, affects
its strength. dissociated in water to produce the cation
and Hydroxide ion (OH–). For e.g., Potassium
• Hydrogen ions are released almost
hydroxide dissociates as KOH (aq) → K+(aq) +
completely when some acids are dissolved
OH–(aq)
in water. These acids are referred to as
“strong acids.” There are just eight strong bases:
• HNO3, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid • LiOH Lithium hydroxide
(HCl) are examples of strong acids (H2SO4). • NaOH Sodium hydroxide
• Hydrogen ions, on the other hand, form • KOH Potassium hydroxide
when certain acids are dissolved in water. • RbOH Rubidium hydroxide
The phrase “weak acids” is used to describe • CsOH Cesium hydroxide
them.
• Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and acetic acid
• Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide
(CH3COOH) are examples of weak acids.
• Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
Base
Weak base: Weak bases don’t furnish OH–
• Water dissolves bases, resulting in the
ions by dissociation. They react with water to
formation of hydroxide ions (OH–). Sodium
hydroxide NaOH (aq) dissociates in water provide OH– ions.
as follows: NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH

NaOH (aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) NH4OH(aq) → NH4 +(aq) + OH–(aq)

• The term ‘alkali’ is often used for Examples of weak bases (i) NH4OH, (ii) Cu(OH)2
watersoluble bases. (iii) Cr(OH)3 (iv) Zn(OH)2

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Properties of base Formation of salts

• Due to the formation of ions, aqueous Salts are formed in many reactions involving
solutions (water solutions) of bases acids and bases.
conduct electricity. • By neutralisation of acids and bases:
• Bases, like acids, dissociate when dissolved
Salts are the product (besides water) of a
in water.
neutralisation reaction. For example,
• Hydroxyl ions (OH–) are produced by
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
bases and are responsible for their unique
properties. KOH + HNO3 → KNO3 + H2O
• By action of acids on metals: In a reaction
• Alkalis are water-soluble bases that generate
among acid and metal, salt is formed along
OH– ions when dissolved in water. Each base
with hydrogen; Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
is an alkali, but not every alkali is a base.
• By action of acids on metal carbonates and
• Bases have a strong flavour and are found
hydrogen carbonates: Salts are formed
in fewer foods than acids. For instance,
in reactions betwee1n acids and metal
soap bases are slippery to the touch.
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
• The colours of indicators are likewise
(bicarbonates) along with water and carbon
altered by the bases. In the presence
dioxide.
of a base, litmus becomes blue, while
phenolphthalein turns pink. CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
• Acids, on the other hand, react with metals, NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO
while bases do not. When bases react with Examples of salts
acids, they generate salt and water.
Sodium Chloride
Salts • The most readily available salt is sodium
• Salts are ionic compounds that have a chloride.
cation (positive ion) that is not the H+ ion • Seawater is the primary source of sodium
and an anion (negative ion) that is not the chloride.
OH– ion. ○ Sodium chloride is the most abundant
• Salts are formed by the reaction of an acid soluble salt in saltwater, accounting for
and a base. around 3.5 per cent of the total (2.7 to
○ Fundamental radicals are cations that 2.9 per cent).
are primarily formed by metallic ions ○ Inland lakes’ saline water is another
(ammonium ions being one exception). wonderful source of this salt.
○ Acidic radicals are the anions generated ○ Rock salt is another form of sodium
when acids react. chloride.
Classification of salts ○ The most frequent way of obtaining
Salts are divided into the following categories: common salt is by evaporation of
• Normal: A normal salt is one that is formed seawater.
when the replaceable hydrogen ions in acid ○ Crude sodium chloride is produced
are completely replaced by a metal ion or by crystallisation of ‘brine’ including
ammonium ion. impurities such as sodium sulphate,
○ Examples: NaCl, Na2SO4, Na3PO4, NH4Cl, calcium sulphate, calcium chloride,
K2CO3 etc. and magnesium chloride.
• Neutral: The neutralisation process ○ Pure sodium chloride is obtained by
produces neutral salt. Strong acid and dissolving the crude salt in a small
strong base salts combine to form salts quantity of water and filtering it to
with a neutral pH of 7. eliminate insoluble impurities.

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Properties Uses
• It is a white crystalline solid with a density • Utilisation in the glassmaking process.
of 2.17 g/ml. • This product is intended for use in
• It has a melting point of 1080 K (807°C), commercial washing machines.
a boiling point of 1713 K (1440°C), and a • Sodium is used to make a wide range of
boiling point of 1713 K (1440°C). salts and compounds, including borax and
• At 273 K (0°C), it dissolves in water with a hypochlorite.
solubility of 36 g per 100 g. Water solubility • As a household cleaner.
is unaffected by temperature. • In the pulp and paper sectors, as well as
• Although pure sodium chloride is the soap industry.
hygroscopic (does not absorb water), • To soften water.
contaminants such as CaCl2 and MgCl2
• The fusion mixture is composed of sodium
make it hygroscopic.
carbonate and potassium carbonate.
• At room temperature, solid sodium chloride
• In textile manufacturing and crude oil
does not generate electricity; nevertheless,
processing.
liquid sodium chloride is an effective ionic
conductor. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (NaHCO3)
When sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated to
Uses
a certain temperature, it decomposes, releasing
• As with table salt, it is an essential part of
carbon dioxide bubbles (leaving pores in cakes
our nutrition.
or pastries and making them light fluffy).
• In the manufacture of Na2CO3, NaOH, and
Cl2, as well as other compounds. Properties
• For the production of saline soap and • White sodium hydrogen carbonate crystals
natural dyes. with a density of about 2.2 grams per
• When liquids are frozen. millilitre.
• Two examples are the tanning and textile • Due to its acidic flavour and water solubility,
industries. it is difficult to use.
• Among other uses, as a preservative for • Temperature enhances the solubility of
fish, pork, and butter. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate.

Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) Uses

• The baking powder
Sodium carbonate exists as anhydrous (Na2CO3)
and also as hydrated salt. • In fire extinguishers
• A mild antiseptic is used to heal skin
Properties
diseases and to bring stomach acid levels
There are four forms of sodium carbonate: back to normal.
anhydrous (Na2CO3), monohydrate (Na2CO3.
• As a chemical reagent in a laboratory.
H20), heptahydrate (Na2CO3.7H20) and
decahydrate. Sodium carbonate is a crystalline Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
white substance (Na2CO3.10H2O - washing Because sodium hydroxide is corrosive to both
soda). Sodium carbonate dissolves rapidly animal and plant cells, it is often referred to
in water. Due to the moisture loss during as caustic soda. The ‘Chlor-alkali process’
heating, decahydrate salt eventually becomes produces a substantial amount of sodium
anhydrous salt (Na2CO3 - soda ash). hydroxide. The anode produces chlorine gas,
whereas the cathode produces hydrogen gas.
Cathodic oxidation results in the formation of
sodium hydroxide.

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Properties Properties
• Sodium hydroxide is a white deliquescent Ash that is fine and snow-white in colour When
solid with a melting point of 318 degrees coupled with water, it generates heat and
Celsius. It is resistant to extreme hardens to a porous mass in 5 to 15 minutes
temperatures. (about one-third of its mass). The volume
• The formation of different hydrates, grows slightly (about 1%) during the setting,
including NaOH.H2O and NaOH.2H2O, creates ensuring that the mould is completely filled
considerable heat. and the impression is sharp.
• Additionally, alcohol dissolves it.
Uses
• Due to the complete dissociation of • Surgical repair of fractured or shattered
sodium hydroxide into Na+ and OH-, an bones is a regular practice.
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide is
• For casting sculptures, dental equipment,
very alkaline.
medical instruments, and toys, among
• The sodium hydroxide solution has a soapy other uses.
• consistency and a harsh taste. When • Chalks for blackboards, as well as
sodium hydroxide is administered to the statuettes.
skin, a chemical reaction occurs, causing
• In the construction trades.
the skin to break down.
Indicators
Uses • Acid-base indicators are compounds that
• They are used in a range of goods, including exhibit one colour when placed in an acidic
soap, paper, and viscose rayon (an artificial solution and another colour when placed
silk substitute). in a basic solution.
• Extraction of hydrocarbons and fatty acids • Litmus is a natural dye found in some
from petroleum and vegetable oils. lichens. This was the first indication.
• When bauxite must be cleaned in order to ○ It displays red colour in acidic solutions
obtain aluminium. and blue in basic solutions.
• It is too caustic to use as a cleaning agent ○ E.g., Phenolphthalein and methyl
or as a machine or metal sheet washing orange are some other indicators.
powder.
Consider the table given below:
• Cotton may be mercerized at this location. • Turmeric as an indicator
• In a laboratory, as a chemical reagent. ○ After combining the turmeric paste
• Recycling rubbe with water, it is spread over the surface
Plaster of Paris, [CaSO4. ½ H2O] of the colouring paper and allowed to
dry, resulting in thin turmeric paper
Calcium sulphate with half a molecule of water
strips.
per molecule of the salt (semi-hydrate) is
called plaster of Paris.

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○ Turmeric paper is next added to the Neutralisation in everyday life indigestion

solutions to determine their acidity or • Indigestion and hyperacidity are both
alkalinity. caused by excess stomach acid, which
○ Turmeric solution may also be used as might occur from time to time.
a diagnostic tool on occasion. • Antacids, which are compounds of a basic
• China Rose as an Indicator character, are often used to neutralise this
acid.
Warm water is used to preserve China
Rose petals. As a consequence, a coloured • Milk of Magnesia, for example, is a basic
solution is formed. Additional substances ingredient capable of neutralising stomach
may be examined using this coloured acid.
solution. Ant Bite
• pH scale • When an ant bites, it injects formic acid
into the skin.
○ The pH scale indicates the acidity or
basicity of a substance. • As a result, the ultimate result is neutralised
using a simple chemical.
○ The pH scale ranges from one to
fourteen, with one indicating the most • Baking soda, hydrogen carbonate, calamine
acidic and fourteen indicating the most solution, or zinc carbonate are often used
basic solution, and seven indicating the to treat ant bites.
most neutral solution. Soil Treatment
○ Pure water has a pH value of 7. • In order for plants to thrive, they require
○ Generally, the pH value is determined neutral soil, but the application of chemical
using pH strips or solutions. fertilisers to this soil will make it acidic.
• Acidic soil is treated using quicklime
Neutralisation
(calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium
○ To make anything less acidic or
hydroxide).
alkaline, an acid and a base are mixed
in a chemical process. • Organic substances, which release acids
into the soil as they degrade, may be used
○ A Salt is the end result of the
to improve basic soil.
neutralisation procedure. Basic, acidic,
or neutral salts may all be found on the Factory Wastes
market today. The manufacturing waste is acidic, therefore it
○ An increase in temperature is caused cannot be disposed of in the trash. To prevent
by the neutralisation process, which harming aquatic life, bases are often added to
results in the generation of heat. garbage before it is dumped into a stream or
○ An indicator used for neutralisation river.
testing is the phenolphthalein solution.
It’s a pretty shade of pink.

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19 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclei were thought to have fixed compositions pure alpha decay, and gamma radiation is
in the eighteenth century. Henri Becquerel, a commonly present.
French scientists, discovered in 1896 that even • Alpha particles and highly charged particles
when a uranium compound was wrapped in have a strong stopping power for most
black fabric and put near a photographic plate, materials. Because of this, alpha particles
an image could be captured on the plate. have very small ranges.
Because of the uranium compound’s radiation,
Uses of alpha radiations
it was presumed the fabric was exposed to
• Cancer treatment
it. The atomic nucleus was revealed to be
○ The use of alpha radiation might help to
the ultimate source of this radiation, which
treat cancer. This treatment, referred to
was found to be a mixture of particles and
as unsealed source radiation, involves
electromagnetic waves. The term “radioactivity”
injecting a tiny amount of radium-226
came to describe these emanations.
into malignant tumours.
Radioactive Emission ○ The particles destroy cancerous cells
The radioactive elements emitted three types while causing no damage to healthy
of particles: cells in the region.
• Alpha Particles ○ Radium-226 was superseded by
• Beta Particles cobalt-60, a more effective and safer
• Gamma Particles radiation source. Radium-223, also
known as Xofigo, is used to treat bone
Alpha Particles cancer.
• Helium nuclei having a kinetic energy of
• Static eliminator
roughly 5 MeV are known as alpha particles.
○ The alpha radiation from polonium-210
They weigh heavily and have a strong
may be used to reduce static electricity.
positive charge.
Local static electricity is less likely as
• The Coulomb forces (ionisation and
a consequence of the positive charge
excitation of matter) between the positive
of alpha particles attracting free
charge of alpha particles and the negative
electrons. This process is often used in
charge of electrons from atomic orbitals
paper mills, for example.
are the primary means by which they
• Smoke detector
interact with matter.
○ Alpha radiation is used in certain smoke
• The kinetic energy of alpha particles is
detectors. As the americium-241 alpha
lost as they ionise matter. As a result, their
particles strike air molecules, trapped
range is quite limited. Although they have
electrons are released.
a small distance to go, they use up all of
their energy there. ○ These electrons are then used to
produce current. When smoke particles
• The alpha particles make up alpha radiation
obstruct this stream, an alarm is
that is responsible for the radiation’s name.
activated.
• Alpha decay is a word used to describe the
• Spacecraft power
process of generating alpha particles. It is
made up of two protons and two neutrons ○ Radioisotope thermoelectric generators
that have been bonded together into one are used to power several satellites and
particle. There are just a few instances of spacecraft, including Pioneer 10 and

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11 and Voyager 1 and 2. These devices waterrelated devices. The use of

function as batteries since they have a this unmanned equipment in distant
long life span. regions, such as on the ocean floor,
○ The fuel source is alpha radiation from which is limited due to a shortage of
Plutonium-238, which results in heat short-term batteries.
being converted to electricity. Beta particles
• Pacemaker battery • Beta particles, which are high-speed
○ The use of alpha radiation as a source of electrons or positrons are emitted by some
energy for pacemakers is common. These fission components or large radioactive
batteries use plutonium-238 as a fuel nuclei like potassium-40 (K-40). Beta
source, which has an 88-year halflife, particles, such as beta particles and beta
making it perfect for pacemakers. rays, are examples of ionising radiation.
The process of creating beta particles is
• Remote sensing stations
known as beta decay.
○ Alpha radiation is used to power US Air
• There are two types of beta decay: electron
Force satellites in Alaska. Strontium-90
decay (β− decay) and positron decay
is the most often used fuel. Long periods
(β+ decay).
of unscrewed operation are possible with
these alpha-powered gadgets without • Nuclear reactors are the most common in
the requirement for maintenance. the β− decay because fission products all
contain additional neutrons. In the process
○ Because of local radiation resistance,
of decay, the additional neutron in fission
the Air Force has had to replace many of
is changed into a proton, an electron, and
these systems with other power sources
an electron antineutrino.
such as diesel-solar hybrid generators.
• Heating devices Characteristics of beta radiation
○ The spaceship emits alpha radiation, • Beta particles, which are very energetic
which heats the environment. Instead electrons that are both light and compact,
of being turned into electricity by carry a single negative charge.
thermoelectric generators, alpha • They have the same mass as orbital
decay heat may be utilised directly by electrons due to their interaction with
radioisotope thermal generators. them. This isn’t true for beta particles,
• Coast guard buoys whose kinetic energy may be drastically
reduced with only one impact.
○ The US Coast Guard uses alpha
radiation to power some of its nautical • For them, it’s not going to be an easy or
buoys. Like many other applications, straightforward path. The beta particles
alpha radiation is a long-lasting power move in a zigzag manner as they absorb
source. All of these buoys are powered the material. The resulting path of the
by the same source: Strontium-90. particlesc is longer than the linear
penetration depth.
• Oil well equipment
• Because beta particles have a little mass,
○ The oil industry uses alpha radiation to
much of their energy is relativistic.
power certain offshore equipment. This
provides a long-term source of energy • Also separate from other heavy particles
for remote equipment with limited charged in the energy-starved section of
access to workers. For these batteries, the radiation process, bremsstrahlung
the standard fuel is Strontium-90. produces beta particles. The high energy
beta radiation does not benefit from thick
• Seismic and oceanographic devices
shielding materials.
○ Alpha rays are used to power many
seismic equipment and other

96 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry

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• Phase velocity (the speed at which light method used. In addition, the thickness
moves in the medium) must be exceeded of coatings like paint is determined by
by a beta particle in order for Cherenkov the amount of beta radiation on the
radiation to take place. surface.
• Beta emission has an uninterrupted Gamma Particles
spectrum. • In terms of electromagnetic radiation,
Uses of beta particles gamma rays are the most powerful, having
• Beta particles have several medicinal uses a wavelength less than one-tenth of a
in nuclear energy. Eye and bone cancers nanometer long.
may be treated with the help of these • Radioactive atoms produce gamma rays.
microscopic particles. The isotope of a material may be stable
○ Among beta sources, strontium-90 is or unstable depending on the number of
the most often used for the production neutrons in the protons in its nucleus.
of beta particles. ○ Stable atoms are those whose nucleus
○ Tritium and phosphorus are found is held together by a strong enough
in beta light, a kind of incandescent binding force.
lighting. When the tritium breaks down, ○ Since there is an imbalance in energy,
beta particles are emitted, which unstable nuclei atoms are continually
strike the match and cause the match shifting.
to generate Similar to a television’s • The nuclei of unstable isotopes spread or
cathode ray tube, photons decay into the radioactive matter on their
• Medical imaging own over time.
○ The vast majority of radioisotopes and • The nucleus and surrounding electrons
radioactive substances are employed may emit a wide range of radiation.
in clinical settings as medication. Radionuclides are nuclides that have been
○ In brachytherapy, beta-ray radioisotopes subjected to radiation. Radiation is emitted
are used to light certain areas of a by anything that has an estimated quantity
patient to prevent the creation of of a radionuclide or radionuclides.
specific tissues. Stents have been Significant features of gamma rays:
effectively prevented from becoming • To put it another way, the photons
clogged with this technique. that make up the visible portion of the
○ As a result, they are also employed in electromagnetic spectrum (light) are the
various cancer treatments. It’s also used same as those that makeup gamma rays,
to address eye issues, among other things. which are very high-energy photons (10000
○ Finally, positron emission tomography, times more energetic than visible photons).
a medical diagnostic method uses • Ionisation by photons may occur directly
beta radiation generation in an indirect via the Compton effect, but secondary
manner. (secondary or indirect) effects are much
• Industrial uses of beta radiation more important since they are not
○ Beta radiation is capable of passing electrically neutral.
through industrial materials. Because • Indirect ionisation is the primary mode of
of this, they measure the width of gamma-ray ionisation.
portable films, including plastic and • There are three primary ways in which
paper films, on manufacturing lines. matter interacts with itself, despite the
○ The cleanliness of sewn seams in fact that there are countlessly conceivable
textiles is determined by the precise combinations.

Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry 97

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○ Photo-electric Effect Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

○ Compton Scattering Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission are both
○ Pair Production energy-dissipating processes, but they
• They travel at the speed of light and may produce distinct byproducts as a result of their
travel hundreds of metres in the air before underlying physics.
extinguishing their energising effect. Nuclear Fission
• In order to inhibit gamma rays, dense • When an atom’s nucleus splits into two
materials like uranium or lead must be or more pieces; this is what is known as
used. nuclear fission. As a result, they are known
• The nucleus emits gamma rays, whereas as fission products, electromagnetic waves
electrons outside the nucleus produce and particles (such as alpha particles,
X-gamma rays. This is because electrons photons, and neutrons) are commonly
outside the nucleus release X-rays.
released at the same time.
• When beta and alpha radiation is emitted,
• This exothermic process, which releases
gamma rays are often present.
the kinetic energy and power of the fission
Uses of Gamma Rays products emits gamma radiation as a by
• Sterilising medical equipment product.
• Sterilising food (irradiated food) • That energy released is due to the fission
products being less energetic (more stable)
• Used as tracers in medicine
than the parent elements.
• Radiotherapy: In oncology, to kill cancerous
cells • Fission is a kind of element transmutation
since it alters the number of protons in
• Gamma-Ray Astronomy
one element, making it a new one.
Comparison of Gamma Rays Vs X- Rays
• For example, the decay of radioactive
isotopes may lead to nuclear fission in the
Advantages of gamma rays compared with
form of a weapon or reactor.
X-rays
• Neither electricity nor water is required. Example: 235
U+
92
1
n→
0
90
Sr +
38
143
Xe + 31 0n
54

• Smaller and lighter equipment Nuclear Reactor

• Equipment that is easier to transport and • The first nuclear reactor was built at the
more durable University of Chicago by Fermi and his
• Accessible in a more straightforward manner colleagues. Atomic energy makes up just
approximately 2% of India’s total energy
• Initial equipment costs are lower
consumption, although attempts are
• reduced dispersion. underway to raise this percentage.
• Powerful piercing capability • Nuclear reactors generate roughly 20,000
MWe in absolute terms.
Disadvantages of gamma rays compared with
• The design of nuclear reactors requires a
X-rays significant deal of attention to detail.
• Radiographs of lower quality
• The basic rules that govern the operation
• Time spent in the sun may be extended of a nuclear power plant are the same as
• Replacements are needed. those that govern other types of power
• Switching off radiation isn’t an option plants. The fission heat is transformed into
• Geometric clarity is less good. steam at high ressure and high temperature
by circulating a coolant, such as water,
• Handling from afar is required.
around the fuel.

98 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry

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• Coal is burnt in a coal-fired power station • An energy plant’s turbine-generator system

to produce steam. One fission event generates energy, which is then discharged
generates around 7 105 times more energy into a river, lake, or sea by a research
than the energy generated by burning one reactor’s turbine-generator.
atom of carbon. This means that nuclear The general features of a reactor are illustrated
power might drastically reduce greenhouse in the figure.
gas emissions.
Nuclear Fusion
○ The steam runs a turbine–generator
• When two nuclei are fused together, heavier
system to produce electricity.
nuclei are formed. The strong nuclear force
○ The waste heat from research reactors may hold together nuclei heated to at least
is often dumped into nearby bodies 1.5 x 107°C.
of water. Trombay in Mumbai and
• A fusion process releases a tremendous
Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu are well-
amount of energy. The release of energy
known centres for nuclear research.
occurs when atoms split. Energy is liberated
○ Researchers at these facilities release during the joining of atoms.
waste heat into the Arabian and Bengal
• In order to release more energy, two atoms
Seas.
combine to form one. The closer two
All nuclear reactors consist of: protons are, the more energy it takes to
• The core of a nuclear reactor, where fission bring them together. Electrical repulsion
occurs, releases energy. The chain reaction gradually gives way to the vital force that
is controlled by fuel and control rods, which connects the two people.
are both housed in a moderator inside a • When two nuclei are joined, a significant
thermal reactor. The heat that is produced amount of additional energy is generated.
during fission is removed with the use of • Like fission, fusion may transform one
coolant. Cadmium or boron control rods substance into another. Stars produce
are often used in conjunction with heavy helium by combining hydrogen nuclei.
water or ordinary water as coolants.
• By combining atomic nuclei, fusion may
• To avoid neutron leakage from the core, a also be used to produce new elements for
reflector is placed nearby. the periodic table. As far as we know, no
• A pressure vessel is used to contain the other planet in the cosmos has experienced
whole assembly. The typical thickness of nuclear fusion. Fusion may be used for
the steel used for this function is about a scientific study or military purposes on
half-inch thick. Earth.
• Radiation is shielded from the reactor’s
Examples:
workers by a large protective barrier.
Most of the time, it takes the shape of a The reactions that take place in the sun are an
substantial concrete wall. example of nuclear fusion:
• In a reactor building, the complete system 1
H+ 2
H→ 3
He
1 1 2
is housed in a container. In order to prevent 3
He + 3
He → 4
He + 2
1H
2 2 2 1
air leaks, it is airtight and maintained at a 1
H+ 1
H→ 2
H+ 0
+1β
pressure slightly lower than the ambient 1 1 1

pressure.
Difference between fission and fusion
• A coolant circulates around the reactor
Nuclear reactions like fission and fusion
core to remove the heat generated by
provide enormous quantities of energy. Nuclear
fission. It is common practice to use a heat
weapons are capable of both fission and
exchanger to transfer heat from one liquid
fusion processes. It’s possible, to sum up, the
to another, commonly water.

Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry 99

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distinctions between them are as follows: • The decay of radioactive elements

• During the process of fission, nuclei are throughout their various half-lives is shown
broken up into smaller ones. Nuclear in the graph below. The decay of radioactive
fission yields a higher atomic number than material is not always a one-step process.
nuclear fusion. For example, uranium may It is common for the parent nuclei to be
be used to make krypton and strontium. transformed into daughter nuclei, which
• A fusion process occurs when two atomic are similarly radioactive and degrade.
nuclei fuse together. The new element Radioactive Half-Life
has a higher concentration of neutrons or • A radioisotope’s half-life is the amount
protons than the original substance. of time it takes for half of the radioactive
• Helium may be created via the fusion of nuclei Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
two hydrogen atoms. 22 in a sample to decay. After two half-lives,
• Fission is a natural process that happens the remaining sample will be one-fourth
on Earth. the original size. A quarter of the original
• As an example, uranium spontaneous sample after three half-lives, for example.
fission happens only when there is enough • When half of a radioactive sample’s atomic
uranium in a small enough volume, which nuclei disintegrate, or when the number of
is very uncommon. In contrast, fusion does disintegrations per second of radioactive
not occur naturally on Earth. The sun and material decreases by half, it is considered
other stars are examples of fusion. radioactive.
Radioactive Decay • The degrading of the radioactive element is
• The law of radioactive decay states that ependent solely on chance.
the number of undead nuclei of a given • The nucleus’s half-life is independent of
radioactive material decreases with time. its physical state, temperature, pressure,
The number of atoms dissolving every or chemical components.
second is directly proportional to the • As a result, the half-life is unaffected by
number of radioactive particles in the external variables. Only direct nuclear
sample at any particular moment. contact with an external particle may affect
a radioactive particle’s long life span.

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20 Biodiversity

Introduction • According to the types of cells, they are

made up of, how they eat, and the number
W. G. Rosen was the first to create the phrase
of cells they contain, all living organisms
“biodiversity” in 1980. Biodiversity, also known
are grouped into specific kingdoms.
as biological diversity refers to the great
variety of species and variations of all living • The five different kingdoms are Animalia,
things on the planet. They include the species Plantae, Protista, Fungi and Monera.
of microorganisms, algae, fungi, plants, and Phylum
animals, occurring on the earth in various • The phylum or phyla is the next level,
habitats and the ecological complexes and following the kingdom in biological
niches of which they are a part. classification. The goal of this level is to
discover some physical similarities between
Biological Classification
different creatures within a kingdom. The
• Carolus Linnaeus proposed scientific names
kingdom Animalia is divided into 35 phyla.
for plants and animals for the first time
using this nomenclature. Later, the art of Class
biological classification was started, which • A phylum’s organisms are separated into
puts organisms into groups. This is a part classes once again. In the kingdom Animalia,
of Scientific Taxonomy. The classification there are approximately 108 different classes.
system starts with a group with a wide Order
variety of organisms and becomes more • Orders are used to further categorise
selective as the groups get more specific, as species within a class. It’s a lot more
most classifications go. Linnaeus classified precise than the classes. There are about
about 4,000 species using this method. 18-25 orders of mammalians which are
He classified organisms into seven groups based on the classification of organisms.
based on their appearance. Family
• In binomial nomenclature, each scientific • Following the classification of organisms
name has two components- a generic name into orders, they are further separated
(Genus) and a specific name (species), E.g., into families. In total, the order Carnivora
MangiferaindicaLinn. Mangifera is the genus has 12 families, while the class Plants has
name, and Indica is the species name. Linn 620 families.
indicates that Linnaeus first described this Genus
species. • The Genus or genera. It is even much
Taxonomic Hierarchy more specific compared to family and
• The system of arranging organisms in a other groups. Genus is the first part of an
definite sequence of different taxonomic organism’s scientific name using binomial
groups arranged in proper descending nomenclature, and the second part is the
order is known as a taxonomic hierarchy. name of the species.
It is also known as the Linnaean hierarchy. • The italic scientific name of a species is
The hierarchy includes seven obligate always followed by the capitalised genus
categories. They are as follows- name. The only taxonomic ranks that are
Kingdom italicised are Genus and species.
• The Kingdom is the highest classification Species
after the domain into which living organisms • Species are the greatest taxonomic rank,
are categorised. and they are only broken into subspecies

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n exceptional cases. The word species type, cell structure, mechanism of nourishment,
should be italicised but not capitalised at and reproduction were used to classify the
all times. One part of the species’ binomial organisms.
nomenclature is determined by its name. • Nutrition: Autotrophic (it produces its own
Five Kingdom Classifications food) or heterotrophic (it consumes other
organisms’ food).
The five kingdoms classification was proposed
• Cell organisation: Unicellular (just one cell)
by R.H. Whittaker. Animalia, Monera, Protista,
or multicellular (many cells) (having two or
Fungi, and Plantae are the five kingdoms. Cell
more cells).

Kingdom Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell unicellular unicellular Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular
organisation and unicellular
Cell Wall Present in Present in Present Present Absent
most some absent
in others
Nutritional Phototrophic, Heterotrophic Heterotrophic Phototrophic Heterotrophic
class heterotrophicor and
chemoautotr- phototrophic
ophic
Mode of Absorptive Absorptive or Absorptive Mostly Mostly
nutrition ingestive Absorptive ingestive

Table 20.1 Properties of the five kingdoms

• Cell type: Eukaryotes (genetic material is • The movement occurs through flagella.
covered by a membrane) and prokaryotes The exchange of gases or nutrients occurs
(genetic material is not surrounded by a by diffusion.
membrane). Parts of Monera
• Respiration: Aerobic (requires oxygen) or • Archaebacteria
anaerobic (needs no oxygen). ○ Archaebacteria can be thermoacidophiles
• Reproduction: Sexually, asexually, or by (hot springs), halophiles (survive in high
spores. salt concentration), and methanogens
• Movement: Self-moving or static. (marshy areas).
Kingdom Monera ○ Methanogens are found in the gut
In the Monera kingdom, bacteria is the most of some ruminants like cows and
essential element. All of the organisms in this buffaloes. This helps in the production
kingdom are prokaryotes, such as bacteria and of biogas from the dung of the animals.
blue-green algae. They can be found in harsh • Eubacteria
habitats such as deserts, hot springs, and deep ○ They’re known as “true bacteria” They
seas. are distinguished by motile flagella
• They do not contain the true nucleus. and a stiff cell wall. It contains
• Their respiration can be anaerobic as well cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
as aerobic.

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Kingdom Protista Kingdom Animalia

• Single-celled eukaryotes are kept under • They are eukaryotic heterotrophic
Protista. They are usually aquatic in creatures. Members of Animalia have the
nature. For example, Algae are the primary following characteristics:
producers in the aquatic ecosystem. ○ They are multicellular organisms with a
• They contain a true nucleus bounded by wide range of sizes.
a nuclear membrane. They can move by ○ Organ systems such as the skeleton,
cilia as well as by flagella. Respiration circulatory system, and respiratory
system are all well developed in them.
can be both anaerobic as well as aerobic.
Similarly, reproduction can be asexual as ○ They are symmetrical on both sides.
well as sexual. ○ Their locomotory organs are nicely
developed.
Kingdom Fungi ○ Gills, book lungs, book gills, skin, and
• Fungi are heterotrophic. Some act on dead lungs are all used for respiration.
organic matter and are called saprophytes. ○ Membrane-bound cell organelles have
• Some can feed on living organisms, a nuclear membrane that surrounds
socalled parasites. the nucleus.
○ Blood, blood arteries, and the heart are
• Few fungi can live in mutual relationships
all involved in the circulation
with other organisms such as algae;
○ Reproduction occurs by the formation
they are called lichens. Such fungi are
of the haploid gametes. The fusion of
called symbionts. Lichens are a symbiotic
gametes gives rise to a new diploid
relationship between the algae and the fungi.
organism.
• Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association ○ Kidneys are the main respiratory organs.
between the fungi and the roots of the
higher plants. Viruses
• They are acellular structures and therefore
Kingdom Plantae do not find a place in Whittaker’s five
• The plant kingdom has the following kingdom classification.
characteristic features: • They consist of nucleic acid (either DNA or
○ They are non-motile. RNA) that is surrounded by a protein coat.
○ They make their own food and hence • They can grow and multiply only inside a
are called autotrophs. host cell. Outside the host cell, the viruses
exist as crystals.
○ They reproduce asexually by vegetative
propagation or sexually. • They cause diseases and damage to the
host. Examples of common viruses are
○ These are multicellular eukaryotes. The
the viruses causing the common cold,
plant cell contains the outer cell wall
influenza, polio, AIDS, etc.
and a large central vacuole.
○ Plants contain photosynthetic Viroids
pigments called chlorophyll present in They are the smallest structures known which
the plastids. are capable of infection. They contain only the
○ They have different organelles for nucleic acid without the protein coat.
anchorage, reproduction, support, and
photosynthesis.

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Are viruses living?

Life involves certain qualities along with an ability to replicate. It is also thought that living
organisms require some degree of biochemical autonomy in order to carry out their metabolic
functions that produce molecules and energy for survival. This level of autonomy is considered
vital to most definitions of life.
Viruses, though, parasitise all bimolecular aspects of life essentially. They depend on the host
cell for the raw materials and energy necessary for nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis,
processing and transport, and all other biochemical activities that allow the virus to multiply
and spread. Viruses are simply nonliving parasites of living metabolic systems.

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21 Classification of Plants

Classification of Plant kingdom based on Phanerogamae divided into two:

Flowering: • Gymnosperms (naked seed plants) and
• Cryptogamae (non-flowering, seedless • Angiosperms (covered seeded plants)
plants) Angiosperms are again divided into two
• Phanerogamae (flowering, seed-bearing • Monocots are plants that have a single
plants). cotyledon, parallel venation, and fibrous
Based on plant body, Cryptogamae is divided root system.
into: • Dicots are plants that have two cotyledons,
• Thallophyta reticulate venation and taproot system.
• Bryophyta Angiosperms, Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms
• Pteridophyta are known as Tracheophytes because vascular
Thallophyta is a type of plant with a thalluslike tissue is present.
body (undifferentiated plant body). Pteridophyta, Bryophyta, Gymnosperms and
Bryophytes are plants with root-like and Angiosperms are called Embryophyta as they
stemlike structures but no vascular tissues. have embryos.

Pteridophyta is a type of plant where the body

is differentiated into true leaves, stems, and Algae
roots. They are also called vascular cryptogams They have chlorophyll in them. They are primarily
because vascular tissues are present. autotrophic aquatic plants. Green algae and
Thallophytes again divided into: sloths, which are native to South and Central
• Algae (pigmented thallophytes) America’s lush tropical rainforests have been
• Fungi (unpigmented thallophytes) discovered to share a symbiotic relationship.
Sloth fur is coarse and absorbs water quickly. As a
• Lichens: Symbiotic association between
result, sloth fur creates a wet, damp atmosphere
algae and fungi.

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in which algae can thrive. In exchange, the algae sporophyte (d) Sphagnum gametophyte
provide the sloth with additional nutrients as NCERT is the source of this information.
well as camouflage from predators. Spirogyra
Pteridophytes
is an example. Green Algae (Chlorophyceae) • They are seedless, vascular plants that
• The members of Chlorophyceae are show true alternation of generations.
commonly called green algae. The plant Furthermore, the sporophyte has true
body may be unicellular, colonial, or roots, stems, and leaves. Spores are utilised
filamentous. to multiply and are formed in sporangia.
• Example: Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, They could either be homosporous or
Volvox, Ulothrix, Ulva, Caulerpa, Chara, heterosporous. They are the first terrestrial
Acetabularia etc. plant with vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem). As a result, they are referred to
Brown Algae or Phaeophyceae
as vascular cryptogams. It is also known as
• They are marine, with simple, branched, a botanical snake.
filamentous like Ectocarpus, or flat
• The three components of the plant’s body
ribbonshaped like Sargassum. are the true root, stem, and leaves.
• The outer portion of the cell wall is • The stem is rhizomatous, meaning it
protected by a gelatinous coating called regenerates after the aerial components of
algin, which is a phycocolloid (hydrocolloid) the plant are killed.
that prevents the thallus from drying out
Gymnosperms
during low tide.
• In contrast to angiosperms, gymnosperms
• Example: The common brown algae contain seeds but do not produce fruits.
are Ectocarpus, Laminaria, Dictyota, These plants create a cone-like structure
Sargassum and Fucus. at the terminal of their stalks.
• Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms have
Bryophytes
ovules that are not enclosed within the
• Bryophyta is a division of green plants
ovary wall. Before and after fertilisation
that includes embryophytes, which are and before turning into a seed, the plant
land plants, particularly non-vascular remains exposed.
ones. Bryophytes are the earliest genuine
• Gymnosperms are trees and shrubs that
plants to exist on the planet, and they range in size from medium to tall.
are assumed to have evolved from
• The taproot system is generally present.
charophytes. They are non-vascular land It may be associated with Mycorrhiza-
plants with an undifferentiated plant body, Association between fungus and roots of
i.e., they do not have roots, but they do higher plants. E.g. Pinus.
have crude stems and leaves. Instead of • These plants have vascular tissues that
roots, they have “rhizoids,” which help the help transport nutrients and water.
plant anchor to the surface. • The xylem lacks vessels, while the phloem
Classification of Bryophytes lacks companion cells and sieve tubes.
• Hapticospida (liverworts) • Leaves are adapted for extreme
temperature, humidity, and wind-needle
• Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts)
like leaves with thick cuticles and sunken
• Bryopsida (Moss)
stomata. E.g. Pinus.
Marchantia (a) Female thallus (b) Male thallus
Angiosperms
Mosses – (c) Funaria, gametophyte and • Vascular plants having stems, roots, and
leaves are known as angiosperms. Inside

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flowers, angiosperm seeds can be detected. • They have coincidental origins.

These plants account for the vast majority • Each floral whorl consists of three members.
of all plants on the planet. The seeds • There are a lot of closed vascular bundles
develop and generate fruit within the plant in this one.
organs.
• Some examples are sugarcane, bananas,
• The stems, roots, and leaves of the and flowers.
sporophyte are all distinct.
Dicotyledons
• The vascular system has true vessels in the
• Two cotyledons, taproots rather than
xylem and companion cells in the phloem
adventitious roots, and reticulate venation
Classification of Angiosperms on the leaves are all features of these
They are divided into two classes: plants’ seeds.
• Dicotyledons (have two cotyledons) • The flowers are tetramerous or
• Monocotyledons (have one cotyledon). pentamerous, and the vascular bundles
are arranged in rings.
Monocotyledons
• The seeds have a single cotyledon and the • Examples include sunflowers, grapes,
leaves are simple and have parallel veins. tomatoes, and various fruits and vegetables.

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22 Classification of Animals

Introduction ○ E.g., Platyhelminthes and Coelenterates

In comparison to the plant kingdom, the nimal ○ Complete: The digestive system has
kingdom has a much greater diversity of life. two separate openings at each end, the
All animals are metazoans (multicellular, mouth and the anus. E.g., Man
eukaryotic, and heterotrophic animals). • Circulatory System
Classification is based on their features like ○ Open type: blood is pumped out of the
• Arrangement of cells heart, and the tissues are bathed in it.
E.g. arthropods and molluscs.
• Level of body organisation
○ Closed type: As blood flows through
• Body symmetry
the blood vessels of varying diameters
• Nature of coelom
(arteries, veins, capillaries), it does not
• Patterns of digestive, circulatory or come into direct contact with body cells—
reproductive systems E.g. in many invertebrates (cephalopods)
Levels of Organisation and all vertebrates.
• Cellular level of organisation: Cells are Notochord
arranged as loose cell aggregates. E.g., • It is a rod-like structure present dorsally
Sponges during embryonic development. It is a stiff
• Tissue level of organisation: Cells carrying and the flexible rod of tissue running along
out the same function are arranged into the dorsal side below the nerve cord and
tissues. E.g. coelenterates. above the alimentary canal.
• Organ level of organisation: Tissues are • Based on the presence or absence of
arranged together to form organs, each notochord, animals are classified into two
specialised for a particular function. E.g., groups:
Platyhelminthes ○ Chordates: Animals with notochord.
• Organ system level of organisation: Chordates have a notochord at some
Organs have been associated with point in their lives. E.g., fishes, birds,
forming functional systems; each system mammals, etc.
performs a specific physiological function. ▪ They are bilaterally symmetrical,
E.g., Chordates, Arthropods, Molluscs, triploblastic, and coelomate with the
organ-system level of organisation.
Echinoderms and Annelids.
▪ They hold a post-anal tail
• Complexities can be observed in animals.
▪ The body includes a closed circulatory
• E.g., The digestive system in Platyhelminthes
system.
contains only a single opening that serves
as both mouth and anus and is hence ▪ In some members of Phylum
called an incomplete digestive system, Chordata, the notochord is present
only in the larval tail, and in some, it
whereas a complete digestive system has
is present throughout their life from
two openings, mouth and anus.
head to tail.
○ Incomplete: Digestive system contains
○ Non-chordates: Animals that do not
only a single opening to the outside of
have a notochord. E.g. Porifera to
the body. It acts as both anus and the
Echinoderms. At any stage of their
mouth.
lives, they do not possess the notochord.

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Fig. 22.1 Animal Classification

○ They are cylindrical, coelomate, ○ Fertilisation is external, though

triploblastic or pseudocoelomate internal fertilisation also takes place
animals. in some species.
○ Respiration in these animals takes ○ The body of non-chordates
place through the gills, trachea or normally consists of an open type of
body surface. circulatory system.
○ Most of the time, sexes cannot be Classification of Animals
differentiated among the members.
The kingdom Animalia is divided into 11 phyla
○ Modes of reproduction involve asexual based on similar fundamental characteristics.
and sexual.

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Fig. 22.2: Phylum Division of Animal Kingdom

Subphylum Vertebrata internal skeleton belong to one of these

• In this subphylum, the notochord is present five vertebrate classes.
in the embryonic stages and is replaced • There are over 66,000 species of
by a vertebral column in the adult. They vertebrates identified under the
have 2, 3 or 4 chambered hearts, paired phylum Chordata till now. The defining
appendages for locomotion and kidneys for characteristic of vertebrates is that
excretion or osmoregulation. their bodies are bilaterally symmetrical,
• Notochord gets replaced by bony or coelomic, triploblastic, and with complex
cartilaginous vertebral columns. differentiation of body tissues and organs.
• Have a ventral muscular heart with two,
three or four chambers. Other Characteristics of Vertebrates
• Presence of a true vertebral column
• Paired appendages which may be limbs or
and internal skeleton along with muscle
fins.
attachment points for body movement.
• Kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation
• A front-side muscular heart with 2, 3 or 4
Vertebrates Characteristics chambers.
• The Vertebrata subphylum contains five • Kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation
vertebrate classes. All animal species • A paired appendage, which may be limbs
with developed vertebral columns and an or fins.

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• Possess notochord during the embryonic that snakes can sense infrared radiation
stage. emitted by prey or objects.
• Vertebrates are the only chordates to • Examples: Tortoise, wall lizard, snake, etc.
possess a brain as a part of the central
Class Aves (Birds)
nervous system.
• The majority of members have a streamlined
Classification of Vertebrates body that is designed to reduce air resistance
Class Pisces (Fishes) when flying. The forelimbs of such birds are
• They’re aquatic creatures having transformed into wings, with the strength
streamlined bodies and a pair of fins for coming from the breast muscles. Feathers
propulsion and movement. Furthermore, also serve important functions such as flight,
fish are thought to be cold-blooded, but thermal insulation, and water resistance.
a new species discovered in 2015 has This class’s members are all warm-blooded
challenged this belief. The moon-fish, also and capable of controlling their body
known as the opah, is a warm-blooded fish temperature. There are no epiphyses.
that controls its core body temperature. • Their skull is monocondylic. The digestive
• The endoskeleton may be cartilaginous or tract has additional chambers like crop
bony, and respiration takes place through and gizzard. Their Heart is four-chambered
gills. They do not have eyelids as the • Aves have beaks used for various functions
surface of the eye needs to be kept moist like feeding and preening. Again, birds
all around the time. are considered to be the living relatives
• Examples of Class Pisces involve Rohu and of dinosaurs (they evolved from a group
Dogfish. of meat-eating dinosaurs called the
theropods).
Class Amphibia • Flightless birds that are adapted for running
• They usually involve cold-blooded creatures include the ostrich, kiwi, rhea, cassowary,
that need an aquatic home to lay their and moa. Penguins are flightless birds
eggs. The two pairs of limbs, smooth and adapted for swimming.
moist skin, and the ability to breathe are
• Examples: Parrot, pigeon, duck, etc.
the most distinguishing features of these
organisms. They also have prominent eyes Class Mammalia
with many pairs of eyelids to protect them. • The presence of mammary glands
(Three frogs) differentiates these organisms. They have
two pairs of limbs for grasping, walking,
• Toads, frogs, and salamanders are all
flying, swimming, etc. Digits are provided
members of the Amphibia class.
with claws and nails. Skin is covered with
Class Reptilia hair, and they have an external ear called
pinnae. They are warm-blooded animals.
• Class Reptilia consist of those organisms
which are ectothermic(cold-blooded). • Around 6,400 extant species of mammals
have been identified. The largest orders
They are characterised by osteoderms
are the bats, rodents and Eulipotyphla
which form scales and bony plates on the
(moles, hedgehogs, shrews, and others).
skin. Reptiles also lack an external ear,
The next 3 are the primates (including
and certain reptiles like snakes are actually
humans, apes, monkeys and others), the
“deaf” and instead pick up vibrations from
Artiodactyla (cetaceans and even-toed
the ground. Only snakes possess amazing ungulates), and the Carnivora (cats, dogs,
senses, which is Thermoception. It means seals, and others).

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Three types of mammals:

Mammals can be divided into three different groups based on how their progenies grow.
Monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals make up these three categories.
• Monotremes are mammals that lay eggs. The only monotremes that are alive are echidna and
platypus. Their body temperature is lower than most warm-blooded animals, a characteristic
that has more in common with reptiles.
• Marsupial mammals give birth to babies who are not entirely developed. Kangaroos, koalas,
wallabies and opossums are some of the better-known marsupials.
• A placental mammal develops inside its mother’s body until its body systems can function
independently. Most mammals, including humans, are placental mammals.

• The majority of mammals are intelligent, ultrasonography, scentmarking, warning

with some having enormous brains, signals, singing, and echolocation.
self-awareness, and the ability to use • Monkeys, lions, bats, squirrels, and humans
tools. Mammals use various methods are some examples.
to communicate and vocalise, including

Primates are mammals that share the following features:

• Hair instead of fur
• Fingernails instead of claws
• Opposable thumbs
• Higher brain-to-body size ratio, which means a high level of intelligence
• Prehensility (ability to grasp with fingers and/or toes)
• Padded digits with fingerprints
• Binocular vision, i.e., both eyes focus on one object (depth perception)
• Reduced olfactory sense and dependent on vision more than the smell
Despite being primates, humans are most closely related to the apes. These apes are further
divided into Great Apes and Lesser Apes. Humans have bodies structurally and genetically very
similar to those of the Great Apes, and thus we are classified in the Great Apes sub-group,
alsocalled the hominids (Family Hominidae).
There are four types of Great Apes – the orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans.

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23 Cell: Building Block of Life

Introduction The Cell Theory

All living organisms are made up of cells, which The “Cell Theory” was first proposed by M.J.
are both structural and functional. For lower Schleiden and Theodore Schwann in 1838. That
fungi and plants, as well as mammals, the is, it is still true that:
body is made up of many cells as opposed to
• Cells are the building blocks of all living
protozoa, bacteria, and certain algae, which
things.
have just a single cell. A person’s body has more
than a trillion cells. Because they are designed • In order for life to exist, cells must be
to perform certain functions, cells come in a created by the division of other cells.
variety of shapes and sizes. On the other hand, Cell Structure
the basic components of all biological cells are Cell Membrane
the same.
The cell membrane, which is the cell’s outer
Cell coat, encloses the nucleus, cytoplasm, and all
• The cell is life’s fundamental structural other organelles.
and functional unit. Cell biology is the study • It’s also known as the plasma membrane.
of cells, beginning with their fundamental • It contains 58 per cent protein, 40% fats,
structure and progressing to the workings of and 2% carbohydrates.
every cell organelle (also cellular biology or • The cell membrane protects and keeps the
cytology). The discovery of cells by biologist cell alive.
Robert Hooke was ground-breaking. • It regulates the movement of substances
• The first person to see and describe a live cell in and out of the cells. It has porous
was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek. The nucleus membranes (with pores) permitting the
was subsequently discovered by Robert movement of selective substances in and
Brown. out of the cell.

Types of Cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

The membrane-bound nucleus is absent. The membrane-bound nucleus is present

Cells are smaller in size. Cells are larger in size
Typical organisms include bacteria, archaea Typical organisms include Protists, fungi,
plants, animals
A single chromosome is present More than one chromosome is present
No Chloroplasts, single chromosome Chloroplasts are present in plants and algae,
more than one chromosome

Membrane-bound organelles are absent. Membrane-bound organelles are present.

The diameter of the cells ranges from 0.1 to The cells range in size from 10 to 100 m in
0.5 m. diameter

Binary fission, an asexual reproductive method Asexual reproduction is also possible.

is used by most prokaryotes.

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Cell Wall Vacuoles

• The most visible component of the plant’s • A vacuole is an empty space in a cell’s
cell structure. Plant cells are the only ones cytoplasm. Animal cells have a smaller
that have a cell wall. vacuole than plant cells, which have a
• A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds single big vacuole.
a variety of cell types immediately outside • Large vacuoles abound in plant cells.
the cell membrane. It’s tough, versatile Animal cells’ vacuoles are significantly
and, at times, harsh. smaller than those of human cells.
• It provides structural support while also • Vacuoles are small storage sacs that may
protecting the cell from mechanical shocks store both liquid and solids. Some plant
and injury. cells’ core vacuoles can occupy up to 90%
of the cell’s volume.
• Pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose make
up this substance. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• The cell wall is porous to a large extent. • The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
sheetand- tube network that runs through
Cytoplasm
a cell’s membrane. Long tubules, circular
• Cytoplasm is the jelly-like fluid that fills a sacks, and prolonged sacks are the most
cell. The majority of it is made up of water common appearances (vesicles).
and salt.
• The ER membrane has a structure that is
• All organelles are found within the cell identical to that of the plasma membrane.
membrane of all cell types, including
• The two types of ER are smooth
the endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and rough
mitochondria, ribosomes, and nucleus.
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) (SER).
• The cytoplasm is where the majority of a
• Endoplasmic Reticulum Types
cell’s chemical reactions take place.
○ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) –
• The cytoplasm of animal cells is denser and
Ribosomes
contains more particles than plant cells.
○ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Cell Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) –
Nucleus
• The nucleus is a large cell organelle that is Ribosomes
spherical and placed in the cell’s centre. • RER’s surface is covered in ribosomes,
• It regulates all biological activities and is in giving it a rough look under a microscope.
charge of cell division. Ribosomes, which are found in all living
cells, are responsible for protein synthesis.
• The cell’s genetic material, DNA, is stored
in the nucleus. • Depending on their demands, the ER
distributes the generated proteins to
• It sends out messages to cells instructing
various sites within the cell.
them on how to divide, grow, and perish.
• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
envelope, which separates the DNA from • The SER has a role in the creation of fat
the rest of the cell. molecules, also known as lipids, which are
necessary for cell function.
Nucleoid
• Due to the lack of a nuclear membrane Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
in some organisms, such as bacteria, the • Several of these proteins and lipids play a role
nuclear component of the cell may be in cell membrane development. This process
poorly defined. The term “nucleoid” refers is referred to as membrane biogenesis.
to a nuclear area that only contains nucleic • Other proteins and lipids make up enzymes
acids and is unnamed. and hormones.

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• Regardless of how it appears in various cells, • The cell’s energy is derived from ATP. Energy
the ER develops a network architecture. from ATP is used to create new chemical
• As a result, the ER facilitates the transport compounds and perform mechanical
of materials (especially proteins) between labour inside the human body.
different cytoplasmic sections or between • Instead of one membrane cover,
the cytoplasm and the nucleus. mitochondria have two. Externally, the
• By operating as a cytoplasmic framework, • membrane is permeable; inside, however,
the ER provides a surface for several of the the inner membrane folds exceedingly
cell’s metabolic functions. tightly. A large surfe area is provided for
Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex chemical reactions that make ATP by these
• It consists of a succession of membranebound folds.
vesicles stacked in normally parallel cisterns. • DNA and ribosomes can only be found in
• The Golgi apparatus gathers and transfers mitochondria, making them unique among
material generated near the ER to numerous cell organelles. mitochondria may produce
cell locations both inside and outside the particular proteins on their own because
body. of this.

• Storage, manipulation, and packaging of Plastids

items into vesicles are among its tasks. • Plants are the only creatures possessing
• The Golgi apparatus also aids lysosome plastids, which are two-membrane
formation. membrane structures.
• Colours are available in a variety of hues.
Lysosomes
One of these is chlorophyll, a green
• In cells, lysosomes are a form of waste
pigment.
disposal system. By digesting invading
chemicals and worn-out cell organelles, • Green plastids are chloroplasts. They impart
lysosomes keep the cell clean. a bluish-green hue to the foliage. Plants
require chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
• Lysosomes burst, and enzymes digest
their own cell when cellular metabolism • There are a number of yellow or orange
is interrupted, such as when a cell is pigments in chloroplasts in addition to
wounded. As a result, lysosomes are often chlorophyll.
referred to as cells’ “death sacks.” • Plastids can only be found in plant cells,
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs and no other living being has them.
containing digesting enzymes in terms of • Plastids and plastids are two distinct forms
structure. RER produces these enzymes. of plastids.
Plastids come in two varieties:
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria may range in number from 50 ○ Chromoplasts (coloured plastids)
to 5000 in a single cell. ○ Leucoplasts (white or colourless
• According to conventional wisdom, the plastids).
cell’s power source is mitochondria. • Starch, lipids, and protein granules are all
Glucose and fat oxidation may be aided by • stored in leucoplasts, a kind of cell
Mitochondria enzymes, which can create organelle.
their own proteins. • Plastids have a multi-layered internal
• There are a variety of chemical processes structure made up of membranes and
Cell: Building Block of Life 40 that need stroma. Plastids and mitochondria share
ATP molecules, which are produced by their exterior structure. Like mitochondria,
mitochondria. plastids contain their own DNA and
ribosomes.

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Plants vs Animal cells

Subject Plant cell Animal cell

Definition Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus Eukaryotic cells; which lack a cell
along with specialised structures wall and have a true, membrane-
known as organelles bound nucleus along with other
cellular organelles.
Size Larger than animal cells, with Normally smaller than plant cells
cell sizes ranging from 10 to 100 with their cells vary from 10-30um in
micrometres in length. length.
Shape Rectangular. Round.
Surrounded by Cell wall, along with a cell membrane. Cell membrane, but no cell wall. The
The cell wall is a rigid membrane plasma membrane plays a major role
matrix found on the surface of all in selective permeability allowing in
plant cells which protect the cell and and outflow of nutrient molecules,
its content. water, and other cell elements.
Plastids Present. Absent.
Nucleus Contains genetic material (DNA) and Lies in the cell wall’s centre.
controls the cell’s activity.
Cilia Absent. Generally present.
Golgi bodies Glycolytic enzymes that are used Reduced in size but increasing in
to break down and package number, Golgi bodies play a critical
macromolecules such as peptides, function in the processing and
proteins, or fats. packaging of proteins for secretion
by cells.
Centrioles Absent. Present with their major function
including the assistance of the cell
division process.

Mitochondria Present in a small number. Present in a large number.

Peroxisomes Cell oxidizers, the synthesis of Cytoplasmic presence

lipids, and the recycling of carbon Oxidation processes for certain
from phosphoglycolate during biomolecules are carried out by
photorespiration all occurs in the cell them.
cytoplasm.

Vacuoles Large, singular vacuole that is used for Many smaller vacuoles.
storage and maintaining the shape of
the cell.

Reserve food Present as starch. Present as glycogen.

Fig 23.1: Difference between Plant and Animal Cell

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Cell division results in four haploid daughter cells.

Cell division produces two or more daughter Without it, sex is a thing of the past. There
cells from a single parent cell. There are two are two types of meiosis: sperm and eggs
types of cell division. are produced in the ovaries of animals,
• Mitosis: A cell divides into two identical whereas pollen and ovulation are produced
daughter cells during the mitotic process. in the flowering plant reproductive organs
Growth and the restoration of damaged such as the anthers and ovaries of plants.
components both need mitosis. • Two phases of meiosis:
• Meiosis: Sperm and eggs are produced from ○ Phase I: At the end of phase I, two cells
sex cells that divide during cell division. with half the number of chromosomes
each are created. As a result, this is a
Mitosis
reduction division.
The sequence of events in mitosis:
○ Phase II: The second division, like
• Chromosomes are formed in the nucleus by
mitosis is equational and results in
the condensing of chromosomal material
four cells, each with half the number
(chromatin).
of chromosomes.
• The membrane around the nucleus has
vanished. Sequence of Event During Meiosis— First
Meiotic Division
• Two equal portions of the centrosome,
• Chromosomes are formed by the
known as centrioles, orient the cytoplasmic
condensing of chromatin filaments.
spindle in opposing directions in an animal
Homologous pairings are used to organise
cell.
the chromosomes. There are two
• A spindle of threads appears between the
chromosomes in each person’s genome
centrioles.
that are identical to each other since they
• Each chromosome’s centromere serves as a were passed down from the same mother
link between its two chromatids. Genomes and father. However, despite their genes
are positioned at or near the centre of the being identical, the alleles on each pair’s
spindle whorls, at the equator or near its chromosomes are distinct.
centre.
• Chromosome duplication happens before
• This means that each chromosome has cell division; thus, each chromosome
its own centromere, and each of the two contains two chromatids. There are now
daughter chromosomes now have their four chromatids in each chromosomal pair
own centromere. as a consequence.
• Divided chromatids, or chromosomes, • When the nuclear membrane ruptures,
migrate to opposite poles of the spindle. previously paired homologous
• After the two new chromatin material chromosomes become separated.
clusters form at the poles, and the nuclear • A cell’s cytoplasm splits into two, each
membrane reemerges. containing half of the original cell’s
• At the cell’s core and on each side, a ridge chromosomes.
forms in the membrane. Deepening the • Because the centromere hasn’t split, each
furrows is necessary in order to split the chromosome still has two chromatids to
parent cell into two identical daughter its credit.
cells.
• The second stage of meiosis begins. Yes,
Meiosis the two words are interchangeable.
• During meiosis, the chromosomes of the • There are four daughter cells, each with
mother cell are divided in half, resulting half as many chromosomes as the parent,
in four fertile offspring. The procedure after meiosis II.

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24 Tissue and Types of Tissues

Introduction is divided into the following groups based on

cell structure:
A tissue is a group of cells of the same size
• Squamous: The linings of blood arteries
and shape that perform the same job and
and alveoli are formed by a simple
come from the same place. These tissues join
singlelayered epithelium made up of flat
to create an organ in the body, and the many
cells with uneven borders.
organs make up an organ system.
• Cuboidal: It comprises cube-shaped cells
Histology: The branch which deals with the that line the kidney tubules and the salivary
study of tissue. gland ducts.
Histopathology: The study of diseases • Columnar Epithelium: The epithelium of
related to tissue. the stomach and intestines is tall, slender,
and column-shaped. It is also responsible
for the secretion of digestive juices and the
Animal Tissue
absorption of nutrients.
Animal tissues are grouped into four types:
• Ciliated epithelium: Cuboidal and columnar
• Epithelial Tissue
epithelium with cilia on the outer surface
• Connective Tissue
make up the ciliated epithelium. It’s found
• Muscle Tissue in the respiratory tract, which aids the
• Nervous Tissue directional movement of materials.
Epithelial Tissue Compound Epithelial Tissue
• A thin protective coating (or layers) of • It is a multi-layered (two or more layers
cells present on the body’s outer surface, of cells) tissue with a primary function of
the surfaces of internal organs, and the defence and a limited function of secretion.
lining of bodily cavities gives protection • Skin is a type of compound epithelium
to multiple body organs. Epithelial tissues that protects the body from chemical and
also, protect inside organs from infections, mechanical stress.
poisons, physical stress, radiation, and
Connective Tissue
other metabolic processes.
• It is involved in sensory reception, As the name implies, it joins the organs of
excretion, and transport of materials Connective Tissue. Matrix, connective tissue
through filtration, absorption, secretion cells, and connective tissue fibres are the three
and other metabolic processes. components of connective tissue. Connective
tissue includes areolar tissue, adipose tissue,
• It also provides mechanical strength and
cartilage, bone, and blood.
resistance to the underlying cells and
tissue. Functions of Connective Tissue
• It connects different structures. Example
• Epithelial tissue has two types:
tendons bind bone to muscle ligaments
○ Simple Epithelial tissue connect bones.
○ Compound Epithelial tissue • They formed a supporting framework, for
example, the body’s cartilage and bones.
Simple Epithelial Tissue
• Adipose connective tissue aids fat
This type of epithelium has a single layer of
preservation. It also helps to reduce
cells that line the insides of ducts, tubes, and
shockresistant cushions in the kidneys,
other body cavities. The basic epithelial tissue
ovaries, and eyes.

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Types of Connective Tissues ○ It helps in maintaining the appropriate

• Bone movement of bones and the skeletal
○ Bone is a strong connective tissue that pattern.
forms the body’s framework. • Adipose Tissue
○ It protects, supports, and stimulates ○ Fat storing adipose tissue is found
movements with a hard matrix rich in below the skin and between internal
calcium and collagen fibres. organs.
○ It also acts as a site for blood cell ○ It helps in insulation, protection and
development. energy storage.
• Cartilage • Areolar
○ Cartilage is made up of Chondrocytes ○ It lies in between skin and muscles,
with thick, flexible intercellular also around the blood vessels, nerve
materials. fibres and inside bone marrow.
○ In most vertebrates’ cartilages of • Muscle Tissue
embryos are replaced by bones as they ○ Muscle fibres, or muscle cells, are long,
mature. thin cells that make up the muscular
○ The ends of the external ears, the tissue.
bronchi, and the vertebral column are ○ They are involved in creating motion and
all places where they can be discovered. producing force, either for locomotion
○ It is responsible for softness at the site or other internal organ movements.
of joints. Functions of Muscle Tissue
• Blood • Muscle tissues are linked to activities
○ Red blood cells (RBCs), white blood such as walking, biking, carrying, chewing,
cells (WBCs), platelets, and plasma picking up and dropping things, etc.
make up blood, which is a fluid • Assists in maintaining a straight, upright
connective tissue. stance.
○ Plasma contains proteins, ions, and • Assists in the constriction of blood vessels
hormones. and organs.
○ It aids in the defence, transportation, • Has been a part of both voluntary and
blood clotting, and homeostasis of the involuntary movements.
body. • Involved in the pumping of blood and the
• Ligament regulation of blood flow through arteries.
○ A ligament is a type of fibrous • Regulates breathing by automatically
connective issue that connects bones directing the flow of air into and out of our
to other bones. bodies.
○ It is a very flexible but strong bond,
Types of Muscle Tissue
with a few portions of the matrix being
• Skeletal muscles: These muscles are
present here.
usually found attached to bones.
○ It helps to maintain the proper
• Cardiac muscle: This is a type of muscle
structural pattern of the body.
found in the heart.
• Tendons
• Smooth muscles: These are located in the
○ A tendon is a strand of fibrous connective
inner walls of organs and are also known
tissue that connects muscle to bone.
as visceral muscles.
○ It is a very strong and flexible bond.

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Nervous Tissue ○ They’re usually found near the top of

• Nerve cells, commonly known as neurons, the root (open ends).
make up nerve tissue. Types of Meristematic Tissue
• The nerve cell, often known as a neuron, • Apical meristem: the tissues present at the
is the structural and functional unit of the apical or rising tips of stems and roots. The
neurological system. plant’s length is increased by the apical
• It is the “longest cell” in the body, with a meristem.
length of up to one metre. • Lateral meristem: The lateral meristem is
• A typical nerve cell’s components are as situated in the stem or root’s radial portion.
follows: The plant’s thickness is increased by the
○ Cell body or cyton lateral meristem.
○ Dendrons and dendrites • Intercalary meristem: They can be found
at internodes, at the base of the leaves.
○ Axon
The intercalary meristem increases the
Functions size of the internode.
• Reaction to stimuli Permanent Tissue
• Within the body, it stimulates and transmits It’s made up of cells that have lost their ability
information. to reproduce. Despite the fact that these
• It is essential for emotions, memory, and cells no longer have the ability to spread; they
reasoning. have specialised in giving the plant flexibility,
• Maintains stability and raises environmental resilience, and strength.
consciousness. Permanent Tissues Types
• Nervous tissue is involved in regulating • Protective tissue: This tissue comprises
and coordinating a variety of metabolic cells with thick walls that can be seen on
processes. the surface of leaves, stems, and roots.
• Supporting tissue: It helps to sustain
Plant Tissues
various parts of plants. This tissue includes
Plant tissues are of two types: cells that fill the interior of potatoes and
• Meristematic tissue store food; it can also be found in leaf
• Permanent tissue. stalks and other parts of the plant.
Meristematic Tissue • Conducting tissue is also known as
• It’s commonly present in plant growth Vascular tissue. Fluids can circulate up
locations, including root terminals, stems, and down the plant thanks to it. Vascular
and branches. tissue is divided into two types: xylem and
• Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue: phloem.
○ a closely packed cluster of live cells ○ The xylem is located Closer to the
with no intercellular spaces; or a centre of the stem. It allows water and
shape of spherical, oval, polygonal, or minerals absorbed from the ground to
rectangular clump of living cells with travel up the stem of the plant.
thin walls. ○ Phloem is in charge of delivering the
○ The cells are small with a large nucleus. food (sugar) produced in the leaves
○ They have an endless ability to downward and upward, ensuring that it
proliferate and contribute new cells to reaches all areas of the plant.
the plant.

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25 Blood Circulatory System

Introduction unidirectionally from the heart to the rest

of the body and back to the heart.
Arteries, veins, and capillaries are all connected
to the heart through the human circulatory Open Blood Circulatory System
system. An English physician named William • Crustaceans, insects, and most molluscs
Harvey (1578–1657 A.D.) was the first to have open circulatory systems, while
discover blood circulation. The circulatory most other species have. Blood in an
system transports minerals, nutrients, and open circulatory system is forced into the
hormones throughout the body. Nevertheless, it hemocoel rather than contained by blood
collects metabolic waste and toxins from cells vessel walls.
and tissues in order to cleanse or eliminate • Blood is called hemolymph because it
them. closely resembles interstitial fluid. When
Types of Blood Circulation System the animal moves, and the heart beats,
• Open Blood Circulatory System hemolymph travels through the organs and
• Closed Blood Circulatory System back to the heart through the Ostia.
• This mobility allows for nutrition and gas
Closed Blood Circulatory System
exchange.
• In all vertebrates and certain invertebrates,
• This helps birds with a closed circulatory
a closed circulatory system flows the blood
system. It makes them more agile and

Difference Between the Open and Closed Blood Circulatory System

Open blood circulatory system Closed blood circulatory system

It lacks specific blood arteries for transporting It is composed of specialised blood vessels that
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. carry oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Blood and interstitial fluid are indistinguishable. Blood is separate from interstitial fluid.
Blood is pumped into the body cavity. The heart pumps blood via the vessels.
The capillary system is absent. There is a capillary system present.
Nutrients are exchanged directly between The nutrients are exchanged via tissue fluid.
tissues and blood.
The fluid flowing in this system is referred to as Fluid flowing in this system is called blood.
hemolymph.
Snails, cockroaches, clams, and spiders are Humans, squids, cats, and earthworms, for
examples of species that have this trait. example, all have it.

helps them find food and insects. Each of the four fundamental organs that
Human Circulatory System comprise the human circulatory system has a
distinct function and purpose. The circulatory
The human circulatory system is a closed
system’s following organs are critical:
system. It contains distinct blood arteries for
• Blood Vessels
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood movement.
• Blood

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• Heart • An important part of its role is transporting

• Lymphatic system various chemicals throughout the body,
including hormones, nutrition gases,
Deoxygenated blood refers to the blood that minerals, and other essentials.
has a low oxygen saturation. • Blood vessels are the tubes through which
Oxygenated blood refers to the blood that blood flows.
has a high oxygen saturation. • The heart’s job is to keep the body’s blood
flowing.
Blood Vessels
• Human blood is made up of a variety of
The body’s blood arteries form a network of
different components, including cells,
canals for the transportation of blood. Arteries proteins, plasma, and other minerals (such
and veins are the two primary kinds of blood as sodium, potassium, and calcium).
vessels in our body’s circulatory system. Components of Blood
Arteries • Plasma
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the ○ This thick, straw-coloured liquid
heart to the body. accounts for around 55% of the
• These capillaries create a small network blood.
divided by strong, elastic blood vessels. ○ Blood plasma contains fibrinogen,
• The pulmonary arteries convey deoxyge globulins, and albumins.
nated blood to the lungs. ○ Fibrinogens are substances that
• The lone exception is the pulmonary promote the production of blood clots.
arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood ○ Albumins and globulins, which are
to the lungs. antiinflammatory proteins, keep the
Veins body’s osmotic balance stable and ac
• In the body, veins transport deoxygenated as defensive proteins respectively
blood from different locations to the ○ Food absorption and supply are aided by
heart. Minerals like calcium ions, sodium ions,
• When it comes to the skin’s surface, they magnesium ions and bicarbonate ions.
are very tiny, pliable, and flexible. ○ Amino acids and glucose are also
• The only veins that carry oxygenated blood present in plasma and are critical to
throughout the body are the pulmonary the body’s general health.
and umbilical veins. • Blood Cells:
Capillaries There are three types of blood cells in the
• Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that join human body: Red Blood Cells, White Blood
arteries and veins by virtue of their very Cells and Platelets.
thin walls. ○ Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
• Capillaries are the sole channels between the ▪ It is the job of red blood cells
blood and the cells to exchange oxygen, food, (RBCs) toccarry various compounds
and CO2. Capillaries and veins are linked. throughout thecbody, including
oxygen. Erythrocytes arecanother
• Deoxygenated blood from capillaries enters
name for red blood cells.
the veins.
▪ They make up the vast bulk of the
Blood
body’s cellular makeup. In the bone
• Cellular components and plasma (the marrow, red blood cells are formed.
matrix) make up the fluid connective tissue
▪ These are biconcaves in form and
(RBCs, WBCs and the platelets).
feature enucleated nuclei (without

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the nucleus). hey use haemoglobin, ○ A low platelet count increases the risk
a protein, to transport iron. of blood loss.
▪ Haemoglobin is a protein in the Blood Groups
blood that transports oxygen and
There are two basic kinds of blood groups: ABO
carbon dioxide. RBCs have an average and Rh.
lifespan of 120 days. • ABO blood grouping: The presence or
▪ Healthy persons have haemoglobin lack of certain antigens on RBCs is used
levels of 12 to 15 grams per 100 to determine a patient’s blood type.
millilitres of blood. The spleen is A and B are the major surface antigens on
the name given to RBC’s cemetery. RBCs. Blood kinds include A, B, AB, and O.
• White Blood Cells (WBC)
○ White blood cells, or leukocytes, are
also referred to as white blood cells
(WBCs).
○ Because they lack haemoglobin, they
seem to be colourless. They have a
lifespan of three to four days.
Table 25.1 Blood groups and donor compatibility
○ WBCs are specialised cells that act
as a defence mechanism for the O blood types can’t donate because they lack
body (immune system). They provide a surface antigen, whereas AB blood types can
immunity by fighting illnesses and since they have both. Donor and receiver blood
hazardous microorganisms. types must match for safe transfusions.
○ They are divided into two categories. • Rh Grouping
▪ Neutrophils are phagocytic cells • Rh is also an antigen similar to that present
that remove foreign organisms from in Rhesus monkeys.
the body, whereas Basophils are • Rh antigen is detected on Rh-positive RBCs
inflammatory cells that generate but not on Rh-negative RBCs.
histamine, serotonin, heparin, and • When Rh -ve people come in contact with
other chemicals. Eosinophils play a Rh +ve blood, antibodies are produced. It
role in allergic responses. should be determined before transfusion.
▪ Agranulocytes include monocytes, • Both a mom and her foetus having Rh +ve is
which are phagocytic cells that rare. This activity may cause agglutination
remove foreign organisms from of red blood cells. This condition is known
the body, and lymphocytes, which as Erythroblastosis fetalis. Anaemia and
create an immune response jaundice harm the baby. Anti-Rh antibodies
against the antigen and provide should be given to new moms as soon as
protection. possible after delivery.
• Platelets Heart
○ Platelets, or thrombocytes, are the • Located between the lungs, the heart is an
smallest blood cells. Platelets are elongated muscle.
blood cells that help form blood clots • Mesodermal organ: the heart
after an injury. • The pericardium is a tissue ring that
○ Megakaryocytes in the bone marrow surrounds the pericardial fluid. The
produce them. pericardium has two layers.
○ Their presence is required for • Two atria and two ventricles make up the
hemorrhagic coagulation. heart.

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○ A small wall separates the right and ▪ So that the blood can be pumped
left atria. The intra-atrial septum. into the ventricles.
○ It divides the right and left ventricles. ▪ During this, AV valves remain open
• The heart is a mesodermal organ. and semilunar valves are closed.
• The heart is surrounded by two layers of ▪ It takes about 0.1 seconds.
the pericardium. Peripheral tissue rings are ○ Ventricular systole consists of
meant to keep pericardial fluid in place, and contraction of the right and the left
hence, the pericardium exists. The heart ventricles, which will be followed by
consists of two atria and two ventricles. electrical stimulation.
○ There are two types of mitral valves: ▪ AV valves are closed during ventricular
bicuspid valves and mitral valves. systole, and semilunar valves remain
○ Semilunar valves safeguard the aorta open.
and pulmonary artery entry points for ▪ It takes nearly 0.3 seconds.
the left and right ventricles. ○ Cardiac diastole is a phase when the
○ The heart’s valves prevent blood heart relaxes to fill the blood.
backflo by only allowing one flow at a ▪ When atria and ventricles relax
time. together, they form complete
○ The heart is muscle. cardiac diastole.
○ The heart contains “nodal tissue,” a ▪ During ventricular diastole, pressure
kind of cardiac muscle. in the ventricles decreases below the
○ The SA node is located in the right left atrial pressure, the mitral valve
atrium’s sinoatrial node. It’s the heart’s opens, and the left ventricle gets
“pacemaker.” filled with blood.

○ The right atrial atrioventricular node ▪ Likely, when the pressure in the
right ventricle drops below that in
(AV node) is located in the upper left
the right atrium, the tricuspid valve
corner.
opens, and the right ventricle gets
○ The atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle)
filled with blood.
is generated after passing through the
▪ During diastole, the pressure within
atrioventricular septum.
the left ventricle is lower than that
○ Branches produce slender Purkinje
in the aorta, which allows the blood
fibres.
to circulate in the heart itself with
Cardiac Cycle the help of the coronary arteries.
• From electrical to mechanical, this is the
Heart Sound
chain of events that makes up a pulse. The
• The “lub-dub” sound refers to the
heart beats in two phases: diastole and
heartbeat.
systole.
○ The initial cardiac sound is produced
○ During diastole, ventricles relax,
by he mitral and tricuspid valves
enabling blood to enter the heart.
collapsing.
○ SYSTOLE: When the ventricles contract
○ Two sounds are made when aortic and
to pump blood into the arteries.
pulmonary valves collapse at the same
• Phases of Cardiac Cycle time.
○ Atrial systole consists of contraction
Types of Circulation
of the right and left atria which is
• This circulatory system sends blood
followed by electrical stimulation.
twice around the heart. It has two parts.
▪ This raises the blood pressure in
Pulmonary and systemic circulations exist.
both the left and right atria.

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• Pulmonary circulation: The heart pumps 140/90 mm Hg or more is considered to be

blood to the lungs Deoxygenated blood hypertension.
leaves the body and is replaced by • Coronary heart disease: Atherosclerosis is
oxygenated blood. the narrowing of artery lumens due to the
• Systemic circulation: Blood flows from the accumulation of calcium, fat, cholesterol,
heart to every organ. The heart’s oxygenated and fibrous tissue. Heart muscle blood
blood circulates the body before returning flow is affected by it.
to it. • Angina: Heart muscle oxygen deprivation
• Coronary circulation: Circulation of causes acute chest discomfort in angina
blood between the heart and the cardiac pectoris.
muscles • Heart failure: A blocked heart is one of
• Hepatic portal circulation: The intestines, the most common reasons for inadequate
liver, and systemic circulation are blood flow. Congestive cardiac failure has
all connected by a network of blood been coined as a result.
arteries. Lymphatic System
Regulation of Cardiac Activity • Capillaries, which carry blood through
• The Autonomic Nervous System regulates the body, release water and a range of
the heartbeat through the medulla watersoluble compounds into the gaps
oblongata (ANS). between cells. This fluid is also known as
• Constantly rising heart rate and ventricular interstitial or tissue fluid.
contraction strength enhance cardiac output. • These tubes convey this fluid back to major
• For example, the parasympathetic nervous veins via a complex network of lymphatic
system lowers heart rate and ventricular vessels.
contraction strength. • Lymph is the term used to describe the
• Some adrenal medullary hormones may clear, colourless fluid that circulates
influence cardiac output. throughout the body’s lymph system.
• The immune system of the body is regulated
Disorders of Circulatory System
by lymph, a colourless fluid that includes
• Hypertension: When a person’s blood
specialised cells.
pressure exceeds the typical range, they
• Lymph transports nutrients, hormones,
are suffering from hypertension. The
and other substances.
optimal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg.
The maximum blood pressure reading is • Lacteals, which are made of lymph in the
120 mm Hg, while the lowest reading is 80 intestinal villi, absorb fat
mm Hg. A blood pressure measurement of

An electrocardiogram is generated using the electrocardiograph (ECG). The ECG is a visual

depiction of the heart’s electrical activity during a cardiac cycle. It is a voltage-time graph of the
heart’s electrical activity obtained with electrodes put on the skin. The P-wave indicates the
atria’s electrical stimulation (or depolarisation), which results in their contraction. Due to the
fact that ECGs generated from various persons have a nearly same form for a particular lead
configuration, any variation from this shape indicates the presence of a disease or abnormality.
As such, it is of considerable clinical consequence.

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26 Excretory System

Introduction • Kidney dimensions of an adult:

○ Length: 10-12 cm.
Nitrogenous waste products and other harmful
○ Breadth: 5-7 cm.
compounds are excreted from the body via
○ Thickness: 2-3 cm.
the excretion process. Bony fish, aquatic
○ Weight: 120-170 gm.
amphibians, and aquatic insects are known
as ammonotelic creatures because they • The kidney is divided into two zones. The
emit ammonia as nitrogenous waste. It is via ‘Cortex,’ on the outside, is known as the
diffusion that ammonia is emitted. Ureotelic ‘Cortex,’ while the ‘Medulla,’ on the inside,
animals are those that produce urea as a is known as the ‘Medulla.’
kind of nitrogenous waste. Ureotelic creatures • Above the kidneys are the adrenal glands.
include mammals, a wide range of terrestrial They make steroid hormones (aldosterone
amphibians, and a wide variety of marine fish. and cortisol) and steroid hormones
There is very minimal water loss when uricotelic (aldosterone and cortisol) (adrenaline).
animals excrete nitrogenous waste in the form • The renal arteries are a pair of arteries that
of uric acid pellets or pastes. Reptiles, birds, deliver blood to the kidneys.
land snails, and insects are just a few examples. • The veins that drain the kidney are known
Excretory Organs in Variety of Organisms as renal veins. They transport the blood
• The excretory structures of different that has been filtered by the kidneys.
creatures differ. For excretion, Paramecium • The Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) is a major vein
and Amoeba have contractile vacuoles. that transports deoxygenated blood from
○ Canal systems are the name given to the lower and middle bodies to the heart’s
the ystems through which sponges right atrium.
expel their waste. Nephron
○ Hydra relies on the coelenteron as a • Each kidney has more than a million
means of excreting waste. nephrons or complex tubular structures.
○ For example, earthworms contain • The glomerulus and renal tubule are two
Nephridia in their bodies. elements of each nephron.
○ Prawns have green glands that serve as ○ For the purpose of producing urine,
excretory organs. capillary blood capillaries in the
○ The excretory system of insects is glomerulus filter blood.
made up of Malpighian tubules. ○ There are two types of renal tubules: Those
that branch out from the glomerulus and
Human Excretory System
those that do not. In the first phase, a
• Excess water and waste are expelled from
double-walled cup-like structure known
the human body via the “urinary system.”
as Bowman’s capsule is placed over the
• Excess water and waste are expelled glomerulus.
from the body via the urinary tract, which
○ Malpighian body or Renal corpuscle:
includes the kidneys, the bladder, and the
The Malpighian body, or renal corpuscle,
urethra.
is made up of the glomerulus and
Kidneys Bowman’s capsule.
• ‘Kidneys’ are two bean-shaped, ○ Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): It
reddishbrown coloured structures on is in the form of a highly coiled network
either side. which is the continuation of the tubule.

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○ Henle’s Loop/Loop of Henle: This is the ○ When blood reaches the glomerulus
section of the tubule that resembles a via afferent arterioles, glomerular
hairpin. It has two limbs, one ascending filtration starts. Water and nitrogenous
and one lowering. waste enter the glomerulus via a
○ Distal Convoluted Tubule: The network of arterioles that transport
ascending limb of the tubule continues proteins out. Approximately 1100 ml
as the distal convoluted tubule, a to 1200 ml of blood is filtered by the
heavily coiled tubular area (DCT). Many kidneys per minute.
nephrons’ DCTs open into a straight ○ The glomerular capillary blood
tube known as the collecting duct. pressure determines the three stages
• Collecting Duct: Both a minor calyx and the of blood filtration. The glomerular
blood vessels’ endothelium is the
renal pelvis are connected to the collecting
first layer, followed by the Bowman’s
duct system of the kidney through tubules
capsule epithelium, with a basement
and ducts. The nephron terminates here.
membrane sandwiched in between. Slit
It is the hormones aldosterone and
pores and filtration slits are two terms
vasopressin that govern the reabsorption
used to describe Bowman’s capsule
and excretion of fluids and electrolytes
apertures made by podocytes, which
(antidiuretic hormone).
are epithelial cells.
• Vasa Recta: Vasa recta is a capillary network
○ It is the pace at which the kidneys
that transports nutrients and oxygen to
generate glomerular filtrate each minute.
the segments of the medullary nephron as
○ Tubular reabsorption is the process
well as removes water and solutes from
through which essential molecules or
the bloodstream.
ions, such as sodium ions, glucose,
Functions of Kidney and amino acids are taken up by the
• Nitrogenous waste is excreted by the body and absorbed. Passively absorbed
kidneys, which are also important for substances differ from those that are
regulating the body’s water balance actively absorbed. Glucose and amino
(osmoregulation). acids are absorbed fast, but water is
• Mineral equilibrium in the blood should absorbed more slowly.
be maintained. An individual’s health will ○ The last step in the generation of urine
deteriorate if this balance is interrupted. is secretion. It is secreted in order to
maintain the acid and ionic balance of
Ureters, Urinary Bladder and Urethra
the tissues.
• There are two ureters in the human body,
which are excretory tubes (one from each The Function of the Tubules
kidney). • Proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) are
lined by a simple cuboidal brush border
• On each side of this opening are the two
epithelium.
ureteric tubes that make up the so-called
“urinary bladder”. Excretory System 3 ○ This form of epithelium assists in
reabsorption by increasing the available
• Bladder-created urethras are muscular
surface area. During PCT, the vast
tubes. It is at this point that the urethra
majority of the body’s electrolytes and
ends.
water are reabsorbed.
Urine Formation ○ The filtrate contains hydrogen ions,
• Urine formation has three main steps. potassium ions, and ammonium ions,
They are glomerular filtration, tubular all of which aid in maintaining a stable
reabsorption, and secretion. pH in the body.

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• Henle’s loop is very important in maintaining • Our lungs expel around 200 mL of CO2 and
the osmolarity of the fluid. water every minute of the day.
○ In the ascending limb, there is just a little • In addition to bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol,
amount of reabsorption. Electrolyte and other degrading steroid hormones, the
permeation is possible despite the fact liver also secretes vitamins, medicines, and
that the material is water-repellent. other bile-containing substances.
○ The filtrate is concentrated and Disorders of the Excretory System
collected by the descending limb. • Uremia: This is a condition induced by an
Electrolytes are largely unaffected by excess of urea in the bloodstream as a
lowering the limb. result of kidney failure.
Maintenance of the Internal Environment • Acute Renal Failure: This happens when
• Mineral ions, water, and even hormonesmay one or both kidneys fail completely and
cause illness when they are out of cease to function.
equilibrium in the body. Osmoregulation • Renal Calculi: Within the kidney, a stone
is the term used to describe the process or intractable mass of crystallised salts
of ensuring that the blood has the correct (oxalates, etc.) is formed.
amount of water and mineral ions. • Glomerulonephritis: Kidney inflammation
Other organs that remove waste from the affecting the glomeruli.
body Hemodialysis
• As well as the kidneys, lungs, skin, and liver • In situations of renal failure, hemodialysis
all play a role in waste removal. may be used to eliminate excess urea
• Excess salts are flushed from our bodies from the blood. To eliminate waste from
when we sweat. Carbon dioxide removal the blood, it is dialysed against an isotonic
from the body is the responsibility of the liquid and then pumped back into the body
lungs. as filtered blood via cellophane tubules.

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27 Coordination in Humans

Introduction ▪ Chemical neurotransmitters may

be found in the swollen extremities
When it comes to coordinating and controlling
of axon terminal axons, which
our bodies, neurological and endocrine systems
resemble “bulbs.”
play an important role. These two systems
work together to communicate, integrate and ▪ It is at these points when two
organise the functions of our body’s many neurons come together and split
organs. They are responsible for ensuring that that they are able to communicate.
he human body functions as a whole. The Types of neurons
body’s command centre is the nervous system. There are three types of Neurons, such as:
The Nervous System • Sensory neurons: Their duty is to transport
• In order for a neurological system to signals from sensors to the brain (brain or
operate, it must be able to distinguish spinal cord).
between internal and external inputs. • Motor neurons: From the limbic system to
Neurons the axons (muscle or gland).
• The nerve cells that make up the nervous • Association (Connecting) neurons: Their
system’s central nervous system are known presence in the brain and a spinal cord
as neurons. allows them to serve as a connection
between neurons in the senses and those
Structure of neuron
that control movement.
• They consist of three parts:
○ Dendrites: They’re cytoplasmic Nerves
extensions originating from the cell’s • There is a network of fibres called nerves
centre. that run throughout the brain and spinal
cord, linking the two together.
▪ Upon receiving signals from their
• This nerve bundle is tubular in shape
dendritic points, nerve cell dendritic
(axons).
terminals transmit electrical
impulses to their cell bodies. Types of nerves
○ Cell body: The cytoplasm makes the • Sensory nerves:
nucleus readily apparent. ○ It contains sensory fibres.
▪ A variety of organelles may be found ○ Brain and spinal cord nerves connect
in and around the cell body. with sensory organs (receptors).
▪ The cell body delivers a signal to the ○ The optic nerve is employed as a
axon. means of communication between the
○ Axon: The cell body’s largest branch is eye and the brain.
this one. • Motor nerves:
▪ A nerve Fibre is another name for it. ○ The motor fibres make up their
structure.
▪ The neurilemma acts as a barrier
○ Organs such as muscles or glands may
between neurons and the rest of
get information from their nervous
the brain’s tissues, shielding them
systems through nerves.
from external inputs.
○ Example: A nerve that originates in the
▪ An animal’s fatty sheath is absent at
brain and travels to the eye muscles
this point in time.

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• Mixed nerves: it is known as Grey Matter

○ There is a range of roles that these • The term “grey matter” is used to describe
nerves, which comprise both sensory the colour of the material, not its content.
and motor fibres may accomplish. • In order to think, reason, create, plan,
○ Example: a spinal nerve. and recall information; our grey matter is
Major Divisions of the Nervous System required.

The nervous system is divided into two parts: • The bulk of the cerebrum’s “white matter”
the CNS and the PNS (PNS). is made up of neuronal axons.
• Central Nervous System (CNS): It includes • The cerebrum of the brain governs all
the Brain and the Spinal Cord. conscious and voluntary movements.
• Brain • Hypothalamus is at the base of the
○ The bone structure of the skull offers thalamus and contains a number of
an excellent barrier for such a sensitive centres that control body temperature. It
organ as the brain (brain box). generates an urge to eat and drink.
○ The three meninges (membrane Cerebellum
coverings) of the spinal cord provides • The cerebrum occupies a minuscule
extra protection. They are proportion of the total brain surface area.
○ Dura mater: the outermost tough • It consists of a grey matter outer cortex
fibrous membrane. and a white matter inner cortex.
○ Arachnoid: the thin, delicate middle • Its main function is to keep the body
layer giving a web-like cushion. in “balance” and to coordinate muscle
○ Pia mater: the innermost highly vascular movement.
membrane, richly supplied with blood. Medulla Oblongata
○ The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) covers • It is approximately triangular and at the
the gap between two brain membranes bottom half of the brain. It reaches from
and acts as a buffer. the base of the skull to the spinal cord.
○ Meningitis is an infection of the • It keeps a check on visceral organs, such
meninges that may be fatal. as the alimentary canal, movement,
○ Brain regions include the forebrain, breathing, heartbeat, and a variety of other
midbrain, and hindbrain. involuntary acts.
○ The forebrain is made up of the cerebrum, • Injuries to the medulla halt vital processes
thalamus, and hypothalamus. such as breathing and heart rate.
○ There are two parts of the midbrain:
The Spinal cord
the thalamus/hypothalamus in the
• The spinal cord is essential to the central
forebrain and pons in the hindbrain.
neurological system.
○ The Hindbrain comprises-The pons,
• This structure spans practically the whole
cerebellum, and medulla (also called
spinal column, from the medulla oblongata
the medulla oblongata).
to the neural canal.
• The grey matter having the cell bodies of
Cerebrum motor neurons is placed on the inner side
• The cerebrum, which has right and left whereas the white matter is on the outer side.
hemispheres, is the brain’s primary
• Cerebrospinal fluid fills the cavities and
processing unit. The corpus callosum
acts as a shockproof cushion and makes
connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
the exchange of food materials, waste
• The cortex is composed of the cell bodies products, and respiratory gases with
of the neurons and is grey in colour. Hence neurons.

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• The dura, arachnoid, and pia mater Reflex Actions

membranes protect the spinal cord. • A “reflex” is defined as a fast and unexpected
response to a particular stimulus.
Functions of the spinal cord
• It is located under the neck and is • The term “reflex action” describes how
responsible for reflex control. the spinal cord directs and initiates a
spontaneous response to instinctive and
• The nervous system also processes sensory
mechanical inputs.
input from the skin and muscles.
• There are two sorts of “reflex activity”:
• It carries motor responses from the brain
Natural (inherent/inborn) and Conditioned
to the trunk and limb muscles.
(taught/acquired).
Peripheral Nervous System • Natural (inborn) reflex
• Sensory and motor neurons link sense
○ Because they are inherited, they are
organs, muscles, and glands to the brain.
handed down the generations.
• Based on structure, the PNS is classified
○ These behaviours are known as “natural
into two categories:
reflexes” since they do not need any
○ Somatic nervous systems previous information or experience
○ Autonomic nervous systems from us.
Somatic Nervous System ○ Cushing and blinking the eyes are two
• Sensory and motor nerves, for example, examples.
link to the brain and a variety of organs • Conditioned (acquired) Reflex
throughout the body. Two subsystems ○ A person’s experiences and education
exist outside the CNS: The autonomic shape their conditioned reflexes, which
and somatic nervous systems are distinct are recurring patterns of behaviour.
separate systems. ○ Salivation is an example of a behaviour
• The brain has 12 cranial nerve pairs. The optic triggered by food flavour memories.
and auditory nerves are two examples (for ears) conditioned reflexes are not inherent
• The spine contains 31 spinal nerve pairs. and must be taught in order to be
learned.
Autonomic Nervous System
○ Continuous reinforcement is essential
• The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
to maintain the strength of the
has a pair of nerve and ganglia chains on
conditioned response.
either side of the backbone regulating the
involuntary actions of internal organs. • A reflex arc may be represented as follows:
Stimulus → receptor in the sense organ
• The autonomic nervous system has 2 parts:
→ afferent (sensory) nerve fibre → CNS →
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
efferent (motor) nerve fibre → muscle (to
○ The parasympathetic nervous system
contract)/gland (to secrete)
predominates in quiet “rest and digest”
conditions while the sympathetic Sensory perception and processing:
nervous system drives the sympathetic • Sensory organs that detect changes in
nervous system drives the “fight or the environment provide messages to the
flight” response in stressful situations. central nervous system.
○ The main purpose of the PNS is to Human Eye
conserve energy to be used later and to • The human eye is round in shape. The
regulate bodily functions like digestion Sclera (connective tissue), Choroid (blood
and urination. vessels), and Retina (the innermost layer)
make up the three layers.

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○ Toward the front of the choroid, the The Ear

ciliary body thickens and becomes more • The ears’ primary function is to hear and
prominent. maintain balance.
○ Only the iris, which is the coloured part • The outside, middle, and inner ear parts
of the eye, is a visible part. are distinct.
○ The translucent, crystalline lens is held • The pinna and the external auditory meatus
in place by ciliary ligaments that are make up the outer ear. Wax is produced by
attached to the ciliary body. glands in the pinna and meatus.
• Ganglion cells, bipolar cells, and • The middle ear is made up of three ossicles:
photoreceptor cells are the three layers o the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are
neuronal cells that make up the retina. all located in the centre of the ear.
○ Rods and cones are the two main types • In the middle ear is the Eustachian tube.
of photoreceptor cells. They may include • Bone forms the three semicircular canals
a variety of light-sensitive proteins. that make up the inner ear. The coiled
○ Bright-light and colour vision are section of the labyrinth is known as the
controlled by the cones, while low- cochlea. The inside chamber of the cochlea
light and the colour vision is controlled is filled with endolymph.
by the rods. Rods include rhodopsin, a • The basilar membrane contains the organ
protein. Red, green, and blue are the of Corti. Hair cells make up their auditory
three colours that cones respond to. receptors.
○ One of the body’s most important nerves Mechanism of Hearing
is the optic nerve. Due to the lack of • The eardrum absorbs external ear sound
photoreceptors in this region, this area waves and sends them to the brain.
has been designated as a blind area.
• The eardrums vibrate and transfer the
○ Tightly packed with cones and located vibrations to the ossicles of the ears.
in the blind spot, and macula lutea is
• The vibrations are then picked up by the
the region that has the highest visual
cochlea.
resolution.
• Further nerve impulses are generated and
○ When fluid fills the gap between the
transmitted via the auditory nerve to the
cornea and the lens, it is referred to as auditory cortex of the brain.
the aqueous chamber, and the fluid is
known as aqueous humour. The vitreous Endocrine System
chamber, located between the lens • The endocrine gland is called a ductless
and the retina, contains a fluid called gland. Hormones are the secretions made
the vitreous humour. by these glands.
• An ancient Greek word “hormaein” which
Mechanism of Vision
means “to move” is the inspiration for the
• When light is focused on the retina, an action
name “Hormone.”
potential is created in the rods and cones.
• The endocrine glands don’t manufacture
Vitamin A’s aldehyde. A separate protein
any nourishment molecules; instead, they
component, called opsin, and the retinal
secrete them into the circulation, where
pigment are both present, separated by
they trigger a response in a different organ
photosensitive pigment. The visual cortex
entirely.
of the brain receives an action potential
from the optic nerve. As a consequence, Pituitary Gland
the retina creates an inverted picture on • The pituitary gland is located in sella
the retina. turcica (bone cavity) and through the stalk,
it is attached to the hypothalamus.

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• GSH (Gonad Stimulating Hormone) is Thyroid Gland

secreted by this gland and regulates the • Pituitary inability to generate growth
activity of the ovary in females and testis hormone (GH) or somatotropin is the most
in males. common cause of dwarfism in children
• Puberty is a particularly fruitful time for and adolescents (STH).
sexual development due to increased • Adult acromegaly and childhood gigantism
hormones (progesterone and oestrogen may be brought on by excessive hormone
in females, and testosterone in males) release (excessive development of long
released from this gland Hormones cause bones).
secondary sexual traits. ○ Hypothyroidism, or a persistent lack
• Increased or reduced pituitary activity may of iodine in the diet, has been linked
lead to a variety of health issues, including: to slowed growth and development in
○ Cushing’s disease children with Cretinism.
○ This is due to the hyperactivity of the ○ Because the thyroid gland grows, it
pituitary gland. Males may have an results in a prominent bulge on the
increase in hair growth as a result of neck’s front. Iodine deficiency may
this illness. cause goitre, a condition that affects
○ In certain cases, infertility and testicular the thyroid gland.
atrophy have been related. Pancreas
○ Women’s infertility and girls’ • Glucagon and somatostatin are both
masculinization are both potential produced by the pancreas and have a role
effects of this condition. in the body’s glucose metabolism.
○ Dwarfism (retarded growth of the long • There is a reduction in insulin
bones) production, which causes a rise in blood
○ Most instances of dwarfism are caused glucose levels and the development of
by pituitary hormone (GH or STH) type 2 diabetes.
deficiency (STH).
○ Adult acromegaly is caused by excessive
release or hyperactivity in childhood
(excessive development of long bones).

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28 Human Skeletal System

Introduction • Protection: the bones of the skeleton

protect the internal organs and reduce the
The skeletal system, which is made up of
risk of injury on impact.
bones and cartilage, supports and facilitates
movement in the human body. Bones and ○ The brain is protected by the skull/
other connective tissues make up the body’s cranium.
skeleton, which serves as a framework for the ○ The rib cage protects the heart and
body’s tissues and organs. There are 206 bones lungs.
in the human skeleton. ○ The vertebrae protect the spinal cord.
Skeletal System Anatomy ○ The pelvis offers protection to the
A typical adult body is made up of 206 individual sensitive reproductive organs.
bones that are divided into two categories: • Movement: the skeleton allows movement
• Axial skeleton of the body as a whole and its parts. In
• Appendicular skeleton. addition to forming joints, bones are levers
that muscles can pull to move them.
Axial Skeleton
• Blood cell production: certain bones in
• The centre core of the human body is the
the skeleton contain bone marrow which
axial skeleton, which runs alo ng the body’s
produces red blood cells, white blood
central axis. 80 bones make up the axial
cells and platelets. The pelvis, sternum,
skeleton, including:
humerus, and femur are examples of bones
• Skull Bone contains eight cranial bones, that have marrow.
fourteen facial bones, six auditory ossicles,
• Storage of minerals: the bones store
and the hyoid bone.
minerals such as calcium, iron, potassium
• The Thoracic Cage comprises 25 thoracic and phosphorus and release them into the
bones, including a breastbone and 24 ribs. blood when the body needs to use them.
• The 24 vertebrae bones, the sacrum bone,
Parts of the Skeleton
and the coccyx bone make up the vertebral
column. The different parts of the skeleton system are:
Skull
Appendicular Skeleton
• The skull acts like a helmet and protects
The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 the brain. The skull, also known as the
bones, including the cranium in medical terms, is a head bone
• Pelvic girdle structure. It protects and supports the face
• Upper Limbs and brain. There are 22 individual bones in
• Lower Limbs the adult skull. The skull comprises two
• Shoulder Girdle or the Pectoral sets of bones – cranial and facial, which
totals 22 bones.
The appendicular skeleton is made up of the
• There are eight cranial bones. They shape
bones of the limbs and their girdles.
the cranium, the brain’s hard protective
The functions of the skeletal system are: outer covering.
• Support: the skeleton keeps the body • The front portion of the skull comprises 14
upright and provides a framework for keletal elements that make up the facial
muscle and tissue attachment. area.
• Posture: the skeleton gives the correct
shape to our body.

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○ At the base of the buccal cavity, there Backbone

is a single U-shaped bone called the • The spinal cord is surrounded and
hyoid, also part of the skull. protected by the backbone.
○ Malleus, Incus, and Stapes, collectively • From the base of the skull to the pelvis,
known as ear ossicles, are three tiny the spine (or backbone) moves.
bones found in each middle ear. • It acts as a foundation, supporting the
body’s weight and protecting the spinal
cord.
• The spine has three natural curves that
give it an “S” form when viewed from the
side. These curves aid in the spine’s ability
to endure high-stress levels by distributing
body weight more evenly.
• The backbone consists of 33 vertebrae.
Pelvic girdle
• Located in the bottom half of the trunk,
the pelvic girdle is a ring-shaped bone
structure.
• The pelvic girdle is comprised of the
Fig. 28.1 Human Skull
sacrum and the coccyx.
Rib cage
• The pelvic girdle consists of the ilium,
• In most vertebrates, the rib cage is a set of
ischium, and pubis, which are all paired hip
ribs attached to the vertebral column and
bones.
the sternum in the thorax that encloses
and protects the heart and lungs. Functions of pelvic girdle
• It has 12 pairs of ribs. • It shifts the body’s weight from the axial
skeleton to the appendicular components,
○ Each rib is a thin flat bone that connects
especially during movement.
the vertebral column dorsally and the
sternum ventrally. • Allows movement by providing attachment
from a variety of muscles and ligaments.
○ It has two articulation surfaces on its
dorsal end and is called bicephalic. • A gynaecoid pelvis is found in most
women, while an android pelvis is found in
• The first seven pairs of ribs are called true
the majority of men.
ribs.
• The structural differences establish a wide
• The 8th, 9th, and 10th pairs of ribs do
pelvic outlet, which facilitates childbirth.
not articulate directly with the sternum
but join the seventh rib with the help Limbs
of hyaline cartilage. These are called • The upper and lower limbs of the human
“vertebrochondral” (false) ribs. body, which include parts of the shoulder
• The last two pairs (11th and 12th) of ribs are and hip girdles, are generally referred to as
not connected ventrally and are therefore arms and legs.
called floating ribs. • Each limb is made of 30 bones.
• The rib cage serves three purposes: ○ The bones of the hand (forelimb)
defence, support, and breathing. are the humerus, radius and ulna,
○ It protects and encloses the heart and carpals (wrist bones – 8 in number),
lungs. metacarpals (palm bones – 5 in
number) and phalanges (digits – 14 in
number).

142 Human Skeletal System

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○ The femur (thigh bone – the longest • Joints are essential for all types of
bone), tibia and fibula, tarsals (ankle movements, including locomotory motion,
bones – 7 in number), metatarsals (5 involving the bony parts of the body.
in number) and phalanges (digits – 14 • Muscles produce a force that is used to
in number) are the bones of the legs propel movement th rough joints, which
(hind limb). serve as a fulcrum.
○ A cup-shaped bone called the patella • Joints have been classified into three
covers the knee ventrally (knee cap). major structural forms:
• The torso or trunk connects the arms and ○ Fibrous
legs. Many animals use their limbs for ○ Cartilaginous
locomotion, such as walking, running, or
○ Synovial
climbing.
Fibrous joints
Structure of a Bone • Fibrous joints do not allow any movement.
• Bones have a spongy inner layer called a • It is found in the flat skull bones combined
trabecular (cancellous) bone that is lighter end-to-end with thick fibrous connective
than a hard outer layer called cortical tissues in the form of sutures to form the
(compact) bone that is solid, dense, and cranium.
tough. Cartilaginous joints
• They have their own blood supply as well as • In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved
nerves that aid in their growth and repair. are joined together with the help of
• Bones are made up of calcium, phosphorus, cartilages.
and collagen, a fibrous material. • The joint between the adjacent vertebrae
• The flexible tissue in the interior of bones in the vertebral column is of this pattern,
is known as bone marrow. and it permits limited movements.
○ Bone marrow is found in the central
Synovial joints
cavity of long bones.
• It is characterised by the presence of a
○ Bone marrow is responsible for the luid-filled synovial cavity between the
production of red blood cells in articulating surfaces of the two bones.
humans.
• These joints help in locomotion and many
• A child is typically born with 300 soft other movements.
bones. These bones fuse together as a child
grows, leaving an adult with 206 bones. • Ball and socket joint (between the humerus
and pectoral girdle), hinge joint (knee joint),
○ The smallest bone in our body is the
pivot joint (between atlas and axis), gliding
stapes, which is found within our ear.
joint (between the carpals) and saddle joint
• They provide structural support and
(between carpal and metacarpal of thumb)
protect the body’s numerous organs.
are some examples.
• They generate red blood cells and enable
Hinge joint
mobility by acting as muscle levers and
• The ankle, elbow, and knee joints are all
attachment points.
part of this group of synovial joints.
• They store calcium and phosphorus, which
• Hinge joints are formed when two or more
are essential minerals for various cellular
bones are connected by a single axis and
functions in the body.
can only flex or stretch along that axis.
Joints
Gliding joint
• Joints are points of contact between bones
• A plane joint, also known as a planar joint,
or between bones and cartilages.
is a type of synovial joint that is created

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when two bones meet at flat or nearly flat fractures. Low levels of estrogen are one
articular surfaces. of the main reasons for the disorder. It is
Ball and socket joints considered to be an age-related disease.
• This is a type of joint in which one bone’s • Paget’s disease: It is a severe bone disease
ball-shaped surface fits into the hollow that causes the affected bones to grow in
space of another bone referred to as a size and become misshapen.
socket. This kind of joint movement is • Arthritis: This inflammation of the joints
possible in either direction. causes difficulty and pain in movement.
Pivot joint • Myasthenia gravis: It is an autoimmune
• This form of joint allows for rotation in disorder affecting neuromuscular junction
several planes, such as up and down and leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis
side to side. of skeletal muscle.
• Rotation, twisting, expansion, and flexibility • Muscular dystrophy: It is a progressive
are all possible with pivotal joints. degeneration of skeletal muscle
primarilydue to a genetic disorder.
• This is the point at which our neck joints
head. • Tetany: Rapid spasms (wild contractions)
in muscle due to low Ca++ in body fluid.
Saddle joint
Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
• It is also known as sellar joints.
• Gout: Inflammation of joints due to
• These highly flexible joints are found in
accumulation of uric acid crystals
various places in the body, including the
thumb, shoulder, and inner ear.
Diseases Related to Skeletal System
• Osteoporosis: Among the symptoms are
decreased bone mass and a higher risk for

144 Human Skeletal System

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29 Nutrition

Introduction • “Carbohydrate” comes from the French

word “hydrate de Carbone”, which
Nutrition is the study of food, nutrients,
translates to “hydrate of carbon”.
and the effects they have on health. Food
components known as nutrients are essential • The digestive system breaks down
to the body’s health and must be consumed in carbohydrates into glucose or blood sugar
sufficient amounts. Carbohydrates, proteins, during the process of digesting.
lipids, vitamins, minerals, and fibre are just a • Whole grains, herbs, fruits, and beans
few of the many nutrients included in the food. that have been minimally processed are
A diverse diet is essential for good health. There the healthiest sources of carbs because
are several nutrients in milk, such as protein they contain the highest concentrations
(from milk), fat (from milk), and carbs (from of vitamins, minerals, fibre, and
milk). Nutrition is divided into macronutrients phytonutrients.
and micronutrients based on the needed • There are a number of processed or refined
nutritional amount. foods that should not be consumed since
• It is necessary to consume substantial they are high in carbohydrates and should
amounts of macronutrients. These be avoided at all costs. Foods that are rich
are necessary for the body’s structure in carbs, which may lead to weight gain,
and its ability to produce energy. Three impede weight reduction, and stimulate
macronutrients are carbohydrates (sugar), diabetes and heart disease are found in
lipids (fats), and proteins. these foods.
• For example, a micronutrient is a nutrient Classification of Carbohydrates
that is needed in very tiny amounts. A • Carbohydrates are divided into two
micronutrient is a nutrient with a relatively categories: simple and complex, based
small molecule. on their chemical structure and degree of
Carbohydrates polymerization.
• Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones are ○ Simple Carbohydrates include
carbohydrate molecules. They are a wide disaccharides, oligosaccharides and
group of naturally occurring organic monosaccharides.
substances formed primarily by plants. ○ Milk products, beer, processed sugars,
Cane sugar, glucose, starch, and other candies, and other foods these
sugars are popular examples. carbohydrates are referred to as
• They have general molecular formulas that “empty calories” because they lack
make them appear to be carbohydrates, fibre, vitamins, and minerals.
Cn(H2O)n, which is where the ○ Complex carbohydrates are made up
termcarbohydrate was derived. of sugar molecules that are strung
• Carbohydrates are produced in plants together in long, complex chains.
by photosynthesis, which involves the Complex carbohydrates are found
conversion of carbon dioxide and water in foods such as peas, beans, whole
into sugars in the presence of light. grains, and vegetables.
• A variety of internal organs and systems Monosaccharides
make use of this sugar as a source of • As the name implies, a monosaccharide
energy. As a precautionary measure, it is is a carbohydrate that can’t be further
kept in our muscles and liver. degraded into a simpler polyhydroxy

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aldehyde or ketone. Monosaccharides may ○ When the body needs glucose, enzymes
be found in a variety of forms in nature. break down glycogen. Yeast and fungus
• Various types of monosaccharides: Glucose, may also contain glycogen.
fructose (levulose), galactose (galactan),
Functions of Carbohydrates
xylose (xyloglucan), ribose, etc.
• They provide energy for daily tasks.
Disaccharides • Fibre is a special type of carb that helps
• A disaccharide is formed when two promote good digestive health and may
monosaccharides combine. Sucrose, lower your risk of heart disease and
Lactose, Maltose, and other carbohydrates
diabetes.
with two monomers are examples.
• It plays a role in fat synthesis and helps to
Oligosaccharides avoid ketosis by preventing the breakdown
• Oligosaccharides are carbohydrate of proteins, which are the body’s primary
molecules produced by the condensation source of energy.
of 2-9 monomers. Trioses, pentoses, and
hexoses are all oligosaccharides by this Good Carbs and Bad Carbs
definition. • Carbohydrates that are rich in fibre are
typically good carbs. This type of carb
Polysaccharides
is also called a complex carb, which
• Carbohydrates called polysaccharides are
those that, when hydrolyzed, release many promotes a healthy digestive system and
monosaccharide units. Examples include metabolism. These are naturally found in
starch, cellulose, glycogen, and gums. plant-based foods. They also aid in the
Whole-grain bread and cereal are also removal of toxins from the body and the
good sources of these nutrients. reduction of cholesterol levels.
• Examples of Polysaccharides: • Carbohydrate foods that have been heavily
refined and processed, losing the majority
• Starch
of the nutritional value and fibre, are known
○ Starch is the major carbohydrate that
as bad carbs. They are usually rich in
plants use to store energy.
highcalorie fats, sweeteners, preservatives,
○ ⚪A significant amount of starch may be
and other potentially harmful ingredients.
found in grains, roots, tubers, and even
certain vegetables. Proteins
• Cellulose • The Greek word “proteios”, which implies
○ In the plant world, cellulose is the most principal or of fundamental significance, is
prevalent organic substance. he source of the term “protein”.
○ Cell walls of plants contain significant • Large biomolecules and macromolecules,
amounts of cellulose. Polysaccharide such as proteins, are made up of one or
cellulose has a straight chain. more long chains of amino acid residues.
• Glycogen ○ Amino acid residues are the building
○ Glycogen is the end product of blocks of large biomolecules and
carbohydrate metabolism in animals. macromolecules like proteins.
Because of its branching structure, • Almonds, eggs, oats, poultry, fish and
which resembles amylopectin, it is also shellfish, soy, beans and pulses, cottage
known as animal starch. cheese, Greek yoghurt, milk, broccoli, and
○ It is found in the liver, muscles, and quinoa are some of the foods that are rich
brain. in protein.

146 Nutrition
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Functions of Protein • Enzymes have a unique affinity for a certain

• Proteins have several roles to perform in food. The substrate molecule may attach
the body, and their molecular structure is to an enzyme’s active site.
what gives them their roles. Included in • Enzymes serve as catalysts.
this list are the following: • During the response, they are not depleted. •
○ Proteins have a variety of functions in oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases,
the body, and their molecular structure lyses, ligases, and isomerases are some of
is what gives them their functions. The the more common subtypes.
following are included in the list: • Some enzymes need a co-factor and/or a
○ Movement: An essential component coenzyme in order to perform their activity.
of muscular contraction, myosin is ○ Co-factor: Non-protein constituents
present in all muscles. that are bound to the enzyme and
○ Structure and Support: There are make the enzyme catalytically active.
various types of keratins such as; ○ Coenzyme: Organic compounds that
human keratin, animal keratin, and bind to the enzyme transiently during
human collagen. the course of the reaction.
○ Cellular communication: Receptors ○ Prosthetic groups: Organic substances
on the surface of cells allow cells that are bound very tightly to the
to interact with each other and the enzyme.
outside world. Proteins are the building Factors affecting the enzyme activity
blocks of these sensors. • In order for an enzyme to function properly,
○ Act as a messenger: Chemical it must be exposed to the right conditions.
messengers, such as proteins, are • Inhibitors are chemicals that prevent
essential for cell-to-cell and organ- enzymes from working. Competitive
totissue communication. inhibitors are by far the most prevalent
○ Hormones: As a source of a range of sort of inhibitor out there. For binding to
hormones that help to maintain the the enzyme active site, inhibitors must
body’s structure, proteins play an compete with substrates. Malonate, for
important role. instance, inhibits succinate dehydrogenase.
○ Antibody: A kind of protein that the Fats/lipids
immune system employs to mend and • They have a low solubility in water or none
heal the body once it is invaded by germs. at all. As ether, chloroform, and benzene
When an antigen is recognised and are all non-polar solvents, and they may be
isolated, they work with other immune used to dissolve them.
cells to keep it from proliferating until • The majority of eukaryotic organisms rely
it is entirely eliminated by white blood on fats for both energy and nutrition.
cells, which is what they do. Antibodies
• Because of their high energy density and
are referred to as immunoglobulin.
chemical stability, fats are an ideal food
Enzymes for storing power.
• Enzymes are biocatalysts, and they catalyse Types of fat
the biochemical reactions.
Saturated and unsaturated fats are the
Properties of the enzymes twokinds of fats.
• Eukaryotic cells are made up of both • Unsaturated fats include monounsaturate
enzymes and proteins, but not both. fat, polyunsaturated fat, and trans-fat.

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Unsaturated fat, often known as vegetable ○ When each carbon atom is covalently
fat, has at least one fatty acid chain with bound to two hydrogen atoms, it is
an sp2 hybridised glycerol backbone. referred to as “saturated.”
○ Monounsaturated fats: They are ○ Meats like cattle, pigs, and chickens all
sometimes referred to as “good” fats. have high levels of saturated fat. The
Avocados and olive oil include oils and fact that these fats are often found in
fats that are made up of them. animals is what is meant by the name
○ Trans fats: These trans fats may also “animal fats.”
be referred to as trans-fatty acids, Functions of fats
unsaturated fatty acids, and so on.
Insulation, protection, and signalling in the body
• There are many foods that contain all rely on fat as a crucial energy storage store.
saturated fats, such as beef, lamb and • Insulation and protection: Visceral fat
whole milk, which can be found in a wide protects the heart, kidneys, and liver from
variety of dishes. Conjugated linoleic acid, harm. Subcutaneous fat helps regulate the
a naturally occurring trans-fat, strengthens body’s internal temperature, in addition to
the immune system and lowers the chance preventing the body from overheating.
of acquiring some malignancies.
• Regulating and signalling: Adding fat
• Trans fatty acids are mostly produced by to your diet may help you produce and
the process of turning liquid oils into solid regulate hormones in your body.
fats.
○ There are a number of hunger and
• Hydrogenation is the process by which energyregulating hormones secreted by
vegetable oils are transformed into adipose tissue, including leptin.
shortening, margarine, peanut butter, and
• Reproductive health: Unless her body can
other salad dressing products.
store more energy as fat, women will cease
• tems made with hydrogenated oils, menstruation and try to become pregnant
including numerous baked goods and if she does not have enough fat.
snacks like cookies and crackers, as well as
• Diet: In addition to improving the absorption
foods that have been deep-fried, include
of fat-soluble vitamins and adding to
these additives.
the flavour and satisfaction of food, fat
○ Polyunsaturated fats performs a unique function in the diet.
• Vegetable oils, almonds, flax seeds, salmon, • Omega: One of the most significant
and other foods high in polyunsaturated advantages of ingesting omega-3 or
fats are just a few examples of foods high omega-6 essential fatty acids is the
in these beneficial fats that you may eat. prevention of inflammation in the joints,
These fats also include Omega 3 and Omega tissues and circulation.
6 fatty acids, albeit to a lesser extent.
• Omega-3 fatty acids help to reduce Note:
inflammation and keep hormone levels and • The gross calorific values of carbohydrates,
cell membranes in equilibrium. The normal proteins and fats are 4.1 kcal/g, 5.65 kcal/g
functioning of the brain and muscles relies and 9.45 kcal/g, respectively, whereas
on Omega 6 fatty acids. their physiologic values are 4.0 kcal/g, 4.0
• Saturated animal fat gets its name from kcal/g and 9.0 kcal/g, respectively.
the triacylglycerol molecule, which bonds ○ Energy combustion of 1 gram of food is
three saturated fatty acids. the physiologic value of food.

148 Nutrition
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○ The amount of heat energy produced • Beyond the four essential building blocks
on complete combustion of 1 kg of a of all biological molecules, minerals
fuel4 is called its calorific value. The and trace elements are needed by living
calorific value of a fuel is expressed in organisms.
a unit called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg). • Despite the fact that minerals account
Vitamins for more than half of the human body’s
• In order to get the most benefit from them, weight, just a tiny amount of each is
vitamins must be taken in the right doses. necessary for healthy functioning. The RDA
(Recommended Dietary Allowance) for
• Each vitamin has a unique purpose, and a
minerals vary according to different age
deficiency in that vitamin causes a specific
groups and needs.
deficiency illness.
• Natural inorganic sources of minerals and
Types of vitamins
trace elements, including supplements,
• Vitamins are of two types:
may be consumed in addition to the foods in
○ Fat-soluble: Which are dissolved in fat. which they naturally occur (such as calcium
○ Water-soluble: Which are dissolved in carbonate from ground oyster shells).
water. • Minerals are essential to the human
Minerals body’s ability to operate properly. Mineral
• Minerals are organic components found in deficiency may lead to a variety of health
nature that are essential to human growth problems.
and development.

Table 29.1 Minerals

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30 Diseases

Introduction one person to another. Pathogens are the

culprits. Cold, Malaria, AIDS, and other
The disease is a condition in which the normal
diseases are examples.
functioning of one or more of the body’s organs
is disrupted, resulting in an altered physiological Pathogens are microorganisms that cause
state with signs and symptoms indicating that disease in their hosts.
something is wrong with the patient’s health.
Types of Diseases • Communicable diseases: These disorders are
caused by infectious agents such as bacteria
Diseases Based on Duration
or viruses. These can be conveyed from one
• Acute diseases are ones that only last for
person to the next or from the environment
a short time and do not cause any health
to the individual.
complications. Consider a common cold.
o Kala-azar and Malaria are caused by
• Chronic illnesses are ones that persist over
Protozoa.
an extended period of time. Chronic diseases
o Bacterial: Typhoid, Cholera, Tuberculosis.
are ones that persist for an extended period
of time and have a major impact on one’s o Viral: Common cold, Influenza, HIV
health. Take, for example, diabetes. infection, Dengue.
Diseases Based on Spread o Infections are caused by fungus on nails,
groins, skin, and hair.
• Epidemics are diseases that spread quickly
and afflict a huge number of people. Take, • Non-communicable diseases: A mix of
for instance, the plague. hereditary and lifestyle factors may be to
blame. When these diseases are made worse
• Infectious diseases are diseases that are
by an unhealthy lifestyle, they are referred to
classified based on their appearance, spread,
as lifestyle diseases. Poor eating habits, a lack
and duration. These diseases are caused by
of physical activity, stress, insufficient sleep,
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses,
and activities such as drinking, smoking and
fungus, and protozoa. These are passed down
chewing tobacco are all risk factors for non-
from one person to the next through the air,
communicable illnesses.
food, and water, among other methods.
Diseases Based on Occurrence Widal test: It’s a type of serological test
• Infectious diseases: Infectious diseases that can diagnose typhoid.
are diseases that can easily spread from

Diseases 151
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• Contact with soil: This can lead to direct

contact with the disease agent and the
spread of diseases such as hookworm
• Non-infectious diseases: Non-infectious
infestation and tetanus.
diseases are diseases caused by genetic
• Inoculation into skin or mucosa: Certain
mutations. Non-communicable diseases are
infections are transmitted by other means.
ones that cannot be transmitted from one
person to another. Take, for instance, cancer. o Rabies, for instance, is spread from
animal to human. It’s usually considered
Diseases Based on Level of Causes
that a dog or monkey bite is to blame.
• These could be immediate or indirect causes.
Hepatitis is caused by a virus that
• The disease-causing microorganisms could is passed from person to person by
be the direct cause of the illness. Bacteria, infected needles.
for instance.
o HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
• Contributory causes are those that help can be spread from person to person by
with the present problem at hand. A genetic sexual contact or tainted blood. HIV can
difference or a lack of nourishment, for be transmitted from a woman to her kid,
example. culminating in AIDS (Acquired Immune
Types of Transmission Deficiency Syndrome).
Direct transmission Indirect transmission
• Direct contact or touching: Diseases such as • Usually through “fly, palms, fomites
skin and eye infections are transmitted when (materials such as towels, handkerchiefs,
we touch or come into direct contact with etc.), food, and drinks”, infectious diseases
the skin or mucous membrane of a diseased are indirectly transmitted. Diseases can be
person. spread through water, ice, food, blood, and
• Droplet infection: Common cold, body tissues and organs.
tuberculosis, and meningitis are transmitted • Some examples include typhoid, polio,
by spraying droplets of saliva or secretion diarrhoea, intestinal parasites, and infective
from a sick person. hepatitis.

152 Diseases
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List of diseases caused by bacteria in plants • Streptomyces: Streptomyces is the bacteria

List of diseases caused by bacteria in plants •Streptomyces: Streptomyces is the bacteria
include: that produce the prescription antibiotics
include: that produce the prescription antibiotics
• Paddy blight, citrus canker, cotton angular that are used to treat bacterial illnesses,
• Paddy blight, citrus canker, cotton angular that are used to treat bacterial illnesses,
leaf spot, plant tumours, vegetable rot, and and these bacteria are commonly referred
leaf spot, plant tumours, vegetable rot, and and these bacteria are commonly referred
other diseases are examples. to as the “good bacteria”.
other diseases are examples. to as the “good bacteria”.
• The plague outbreak had a significant influence • • Lactobacillus
• The plague outbreak had a significant influence Lactobacillus Acidophilus/Lactis:
Acidophilus/ Lactis: These
These
on the human population for decades. The bacteria
on the human population for decades. bacteriaare
arecrucial
crucialininconverting
convertingmilk
milkinto
into
bacteria infection causes physiologic disruption curd.
The bacteria infection causes physiologic curd.
in the host and can be deadly. Virus
disruption in the host and can be deadly.
• Fever and tiredness are common symptoms
• Fever and tiredness are common symptoms The virus is an internal parasite with no
• Virus
that the host notices. If not treated promptly,
that the host notices. If not treated • metabolic
The virusapparatus of its own.
is an internal parasite with no
the infection can be lethal.
promptly, the infection can be lethal. metabolic apparatus of its own. material
• These infectious pathogens’ genetic
• Antibiotics, on the other hand, are used
Antibiotics, in
• successfully on modern
the other hand, are used • isThese infectious
essentially pathogens’
a nucleic acidgenetic material
enclosed in a
medicine to treat
successfully in modern medicine to treat is essentially
protein capsule.a nucleic acid enclosed in a
bacterial disorders.
bacterial disorders. protein
• They [Link] parasites by taking over
reproduce
• According to the following list, bacteria are
According todangerous
the following They
• the reproduce
protein as parasites
machinery by taking
of the host over
cell; but,
• particularly to list, bacteria
humans. are
Many
particularly
helpful dangerous
bacteria, on the toother
humans.
hand, Many
are once outside the host body, they strugglebut,
the protein machinery of the host cell; to
helpful bacteria, on the other hand, are once outside
survive the and
in the heat hosthumidity.
body, they struggle
useful to human lives.
Gooduseful to human lives.
Bacteria Viralto survive in the heat and humidity.
Diseases
• Rhizobium: Bacteria that live in the soil
Good Bacteria Viral Diseases
and provide ammonia to plants, which is
• Rhizobium: Bacteria that live in the soil
necessary for their growth.
and provide ammonia to plants, which is
necessary for their growth.

Diseases 23

Diseases 153
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Table. 30.1: Viral Diseases of Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems

CoronaVirus SARS
• Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is a newly • The SARS-associated coronavirus causes a
found coronavirus that causes an infectious viral respiratory disorder known as a severe
disease. acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).
• Coronaviruses get their name from how they • SARS is an airborne virus that spreads
look: “corona” means “crown”. The virus’s through small droplets of saliva, much like
outer layers are encased in spike proteins, the common cold and influenza viruses.
which act as a crown. MERS
• The COVID-19 virus is disseminated mostly • Middle-East respiratory syndrome (MERS)
through saliva droplets or discharge from is a new coronavirus-related respiratory
the infected person’s nose. illness.

154 Diseases
 which means it may pass from animals to ¾ Getting more sleep and rest
humans. ¾ Maintaining a healthy diet
· Contact Admin ·
• Fruit bats, commonly known as flying foxes,
are the natural animal reservoir for NiV. Diseases by the Virus in Plants
• Middle-East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is How are viral diseases treated?
• Pigs and humans are both known to be • Viruses that infect plants are not the same
an infectious respiratory ailment that can General
infected with the Nipah virus. • as those treatments for viral They
that infect animals. infections
have
be lethal. Close contact with an infected include:
genetic material that isn’t the same as each
person is a common way for HIV to spread. o ForTheyfever,can
body aches,infect
and pain,
Bacteriophage other. severely plantstake
in
•Nipah
TheVirus (NiV) [Link] (Escherichia coli)
bacteria acetaminophen
agriculture (Tylenol) or ibuprofen
and farming.
The Nipah
• generally virus
lives (NiV)
in the is a zoonotic virus,
intestines. (Motrin, Advil).
¾ Leaf mosaics can be found on tobacco,
which means it may
• A bacteriophage is a viruspass from animals
that causesto Increasing
o onion, your
beans, fluid brinjal,
chilli, intake and other
humans. to become infected. In fact, the
bacteria o plants.
Getting more sleep and rest
• Fruit bats,
word commonly known
“bacteriophage” as flying
means foxes,
“bacteria ¾o Mango malformation,
Maintaining potato leaf roll,
a healthy diet
are theinnatural
eater” Greek. animal reservoir for NiV. and papaya curl are, respectively, mango
Diseases by the Virus in Plants
•• The
Pigs bacteriophage
and humans adheres
are bothtoknown
the surface
to be malformation, potato leaf roll, and
• Viruses that infect plants are not the same
of Escherichia
infected coli,Nipah
with the a much larger organism
virus. papaya curl.
as those that infect animals. They have
(E. coli). ¾ To some extent, antiviral drugs may be
Bacteriophage genetic material that isn’t the same as each
The used to treat them.
•• The bacteriophage
bacteria [Link] attaches itself to coli)
(Escherichia the other. They can severely infect plants in
bacterium and injects DNA into
generally lives in the intestines. it. agriculture and farming.
• The bacterium’s DNA tells it to make a lot of Diseases Caused by Fungi
• A bacteriophage is a virus that causes o Leaf mosaics can be found on tobacco,
new viruses. The E. coli produces so much • Unlike viruses, fungi have cells and are
bacteria to become infected. In fact, the onion, beans, chilli, brinjal, and other
that it bursts. multicellular tiny creatures. They will live as
word “bacteriophage” means “bacteria plants.
parasites in the body, causing sickness.
eater” in Greek. o Mango malformation, potato leaf roll,
• The bacteriophage adheres to the surface and papaya curl are, respectively, mango
of Escherichia coli, a much larger organism malformation, potato leaf roll, and
(E. coli). papaya curl.

• The bacteriophage attaches itself to the o To some extent, antiviral drugs may be
bacterium and injects DNA into it. used to treat them.

• The bacterium’s DNA tells it to make a lot of Diseases caused by fungi

new viruses.
Figure: The
Escherichia [Link]
coli produces
protected from so much
Phage • Unlike viruses, fungi have cells and are
Infection
that it by Inhibiting Inner Membrane Receptor
bursts. multicellular, tiny creatures. They will live as
Proteins
parasites in the body, causing sickness.

Diseases 25

DiseasesCaused due to Protozoa

Diseases 155
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Diseases caused due to protozoa

Various Non-Communicable Diseases Prevention and cure

Diabetes mellitus • Control your body’s excessive weight.
The disease can be diagnosed by blood tests • It is necessary to follow a diet that is both
or urine tests. regulated and controlled.
Causes • Sugar and a lot of carbohydrates should be
• Insulin h ns from parents to children. avoided in the food.
Symptoms • Insulin injections before meals, if necessary
• There is more glucose in the blood. (only with a doctor’s prescription).
• Urine passing is excessive and frequent. Cardiovascular Diseases
• I’m constantly thirsty and hungry. Common causes
• Injury healing potential is reduced. • Cholesterol (a type of fat) deposits in the
walls of coronary arteries, restricting blood
• The body as a whole is feeble.
flow to the heart muscles. This can result in
• Diabetic coma can occur in extreme a heart attack.
circumstances, rendering the patient
• The heart’s efficiency is harmed as a result
unresponsive.
of lower blood supply and oxygen availability
to the muscles.

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• Because of the strain and tension. The bones become brittle and susceptible
• Obesity is a problem that affects many to fracture. Osteoporosis-affected bones
people (overweight). can fracture even from a slight fall or injury.
Because of hormonal shifts that occur as
Hypertension: (High Blood Pressure)
people age, elderly men and women are the
Symptoms most vulnerable.
• Chronically high blood pressure (BP) Symptoms
• It can damage the arteries of the kidneys, • Because osteoporosis has no visible
causing them to burst. symptoms and may not be recognised
• Blindness in extreme cases. until a bone fracture occurs, people with
• It’s also possible that it’ll render you the disease may be uninformed of their
paralysed. condition for a long time.
Prevention and cure • Spinal fractures can produce excruciating
“band-like” pain that extends from the
• Do not get tense in your mind.
back to the sides of the body. Repeated
• A low-fat diet should be followed.
spine fractures can cause lower back pain
• The body’s weight must be kept under and curvature of the spine, resulting in a
control. hunched-back appearance.
• Good eating habits should be developed. • While walking or stepping off, some
• Medicines should be taken as directed by a osteoporosis patients develop stress
doctor. fractures in their feet. A fall is the most
Coronary Heart Disease common cause of hip fractures. Hip fractures
can develop in people with osteoporosis
Symptoms
after relatively minor accidents. Because of
• Severe chest pain with gasping for air. the low bone quality, hip fractures might
• Severe vomiting and nausea. take a long time to heal.
• There is a lot of perspiration. Treatment
• Inside the blood vessels, a blood clot may • Patients with osteoporosis are frequently
develop. administered vitamin D and calcium
Prevention and cure supplements.
• A low-saturated-fat diet can help to prevent • They are also advised to take it easy in order
cholesterol formation. to avoid the condition deteriorating.
• It is important to cultivate healthy eating • Changes in lifestyle and food are also
habits. recommended. According to the patients,
calcium should be consumed either
• A person’s weight should be tested if they
through diet or as supplements in the form
are overweight.
of tablets. Calcium should be spread out
• Don’t smoke, drink alcoholic beverages or
throughout the day because the body only
use medications.
absorbs about 500 mg at a time.
• Seek care from a licensed physician.
• Exercise can also help to lower your risk
• An electrocardiogram (ECG) may be used to of developing osteoporosis. However,
diagnose the condition. performing osteoporosis exercises under
• In extreme situations, bypass surgery is the supervision of a trained physiotherapist
performed. is essential.
Osteoporosis Cancer
• Osteoporosis is an age-related condition • It is the uncontrolled and unwanted growth
characterised by a loss of bone density. of cells.

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Cause • They are thought to occur as a result of

• There is yet to be a plausible reason for this. hypersensitivity in some people to foreign
On the other hand, proto-oncogenes have matter (allergens) that may enter the body.
been detected in the human body. These • Some of the symptoms include sneezing,
oncogenes become active cancercausing gasping, weeping eyes, and irritation of the
oncogenes when they are triggered by throat or trachea.
specific substances or situations. • Pollen grains, feathers, some animals or
• Both heavy drinking and smoking are insects, pharmaceuticals, medicines, and
harmful to your health. scents are examples of allergens.
• Nicotine chewing Blood Group Related Disorders
• Skin irritation or damage occurs in the same • Blood disorders are illnesses that affect the
spot on a regular basis. blood’s capacity to function correctly. There
Cancer is a kind of tumorous growth. tumours are a number of different varieties, each
can be classified into two categories: with its unique set of symptoms. On the
• Benign tumour other hand, unexplained fatigue and weight
o It is limited to the site of origin and does loss are two common symptoms.
not spread to other areas of the body, • In most blood disorders, the amount of
and it is relatively harmless. cells, proteins, platelets, and nutrients in
• Malignant tumour the blood is diminished or altered. The bulk
o It quickly spreads to other areas of of blood illnesses is caused by mutations in
the body and spreads quickly. This is a certain gene sections that can be handed
dangerous situation that could result in down across generations.
the patient’s death. • Blood issues can be caused by a variety of
Symptoms medical conditions, medicines, and lifestyle
factors.
• Tissue thickening or lumps, particularly in
the mouth, breast, and uterus. • A blood disorder is a disease that affects
one or more parts of the blood, reducing its
• Anyone who has a blood-tinged discharge
ability to function correctly.
or irregular bleeding at the start.
• Any type of discomfort that takes a long • Many blood diseases are named after the
time to recover. blood component that is afflicted.

• Looks like a mole or a wart. • Blood diseases that cause a reduction in

blood components or impair their function
• Hoarseness of the voice, coughing, or
are classified as follows:
difficulty swallowing
o Anaemia: whether there is a problem
Prevention and cure
with red blood cells.
• Once a year, a cancer screening should be
performed. o Leukopenia: a condition that affects
white blood cells.
• Before beginning treatment, you should get
medical counsel. o Thrombocytopenia: a condition that
affects platelets.
• Do not smoke, consume alcoholic beverages,
or chew tobacco. • Categories of blood disorders that increase
• Maintain a healthy lifestyle to protect your blood components are:
body. o Erythrocytosis (if the condition includes
Allergy red blood cells).

• This cluster of non-infectious disorders has o Leukocytosis – occurs when white blood
no obvious aetiology. cells are affected.

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o Thrombocythemia or thrombocytosis – • Increase your intake of red meat, green

whether its a platelet disorder. vegetables, berries, and nuts, as well as
Anaemia iron-fortified foods to increase the iron
content of your diet.
Anaemia is a condition in which there aren’t
enough red blood cells or haemoglobin in the • Iron supplementation
blood. The following are the most prevalent • In the instance of anaemia caused by blood
kinds of anaemia: loss, the source of the blood loss must be
identified before the anaemia can be cured.
• Iron-Deficiency Anaemia
Folate-Deficiency Anaemia
• Folate-Deficiency Anaemia • Anaemia caused by a lack of Folic Acid
• Sickle-Cell Anaemia (Folate) in the body is Folate-Deficiency
Anaemia.
Iron-Deficiency Anaemia
Why does folate-deficiency cause anaemia?
• The most prevalent type of anaemia is
• Folate is a vitamin that is needed for a
caused by a shortage of iron in the body. This
variety of bodily functions, including the
shortage results in the formation of tiny red
formation of red blood cells.
blood cells with inadequate haemoglobin to
oxygenate the organs and tissues effectively. • Folate deficiency causes decreased red
blood cell development, larger cell size, and
Causes
shorter cell life.
• A shortage of iron in your diet and a decline • Lower oxygen ability and signs of anaemia
in iron absorption are two examples (e.g., result from having fewer red blood cells.
Coeliac disease, where the small bowel is
• Folate cannot be retained in the body for
damaged)
long periods of time, so one must consume
• There is blood loss. For instance, a surgery, enough of it on a regular basis.
an injury, or significant menstrual bleeding
during pregnancy Causes of folate-deficiency anaemia

Symptoms • Certain Medications

• Coeliac Disease or Inflammatory bowel
• A fast pulse
disease
• Tiredness
• Drinking too much Alcohol
• Palpitations
• Pregnancy
• Breathlessness after a little exercise
Treatment of folate-deficiency anaemia
• Looking pale
To determine the proper treatment, the cause
Less common symptoms include: of the Folate Deficiency must be determined,
• An altered sense of taste but some common treatments are mentioned
below:
• Tinnitus (ringing in your ears)
• Raising the amount of Folate in your diet
• Soreness at the edges of your mouth
• Taking Folate supplements
• Poor concentration and a short attention
Sickle-Cell Anaemia
span
• Chronic anaemia and occasional bouts of
Treatment pain are the hallmarks of this autosomal
Treatment for Iron deficiency varies depending recessive hereditary blood disorder caused
on the cause, but popular treatments include: by a mutation in the haemoglobin gene.

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What causes anaemia? The following are the key strategies used.
The oxygen-carrying substance • Providing adequate pain relief when a crisis
haemoglobin is deficient in Sickle-cell occurs reduces the likelihood of severe
patients. Some defective haemoglobin complications such as stroke.
molecules can cluster together to form • Treatment of associated symptoms like
long, rod-like structures after they lose priapism and anaemia.
their oxygen.
White Blood Cells: Diseases and Disorders
• Normal red blood cells are smooth
White blood cell diseases are caused by
and doughnut-shaped, whereas red
an increase or decrease in the number
blood cells in patients with Sickle-
of Leukocytes (white blood cells) in the
cell anaemia become rigid and sickle-
bloodstream. In the following section, we will
shaped, making them difficult to
take a brief look at some of the most common
squeeze through the small blood
white blood cell diseases:
vessels.
• Neutropenia
• Normal red blood cells have a lifespan
• Leukaemia
of around 120 days, but sickle cells only
have a lifespan of 10 to 20 days. Since Neutropenia
sickleshaped cells have a limited life A disorder where levels of a sub-type of
span, they cannot be replaced rapidly
white blood cell, the neutrophils, are too low.
enough to keep the number of cells
needed by the blood to provide oxygen Neutrophils have the main role in destroying
to organs and tissues resulting in bacteria. A patient with too few neutrophils
anaemia. circulating in their bloodstream is, therefore,
more susceptible to bacterial infections.
Sickle cell anaemia, on the other hand, has
additional symptoms that make it one of the Causes
more severe forms of anaemia: • Causes of Neutropenia can be broadly divided
• The crisis of sickle cell disease (episodes between problems with the production of
of chronic pain). When abnormally formed cells by the bone marrow and destruction
blood cells block small blood vessels, cells of the cells elsewhere in the body.
in the affected tissue die, and a sickle cell Treatment
crisis occurs. Inflammation occurs as a • Treatment is largely based on the cause
result of this, which irritates adjacent nerve of the disease, and emphasis is placed on
endings, causing discomfort. the prevention and treatment of infection.
• Jaundice: The rapid breakdown of red blood Without prompt medical treatment, the
cells causes an accumulation of the waste condition may become life-threatening, and
product bilirubin in the body, which causes the patient can then develop a condition
the skin to turn yellow. called Neutropenic sepsis.
• Gallstones are a form of gallstone. Gallstones Leukaemia
are small crystal structures formed when Leukaemia is a cancer of the white blood cells
bilirubin levels in the blood rise too high. that starts in blood-forming tissue such as
• Avascular necrosis is a form of avascular the bone marrow and causes large numbers
necrosis. A medical term for bone tissue of immature white blood cells to be produced
damage caused by a lack of blood supply. and enter the bloodstream. This disrupts
Treatment the normal balance of cells in the blood and
Sickle Cell Anaemia is a complicated condition the presence of large numbers of immature
that necessitates a variety of medical treatments. white blood cells reduce the body’s capacity

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to fight bacteria and viruses leaving you more excessive bleeding from small wounds and
susceptible to infection. spontaneous internal haemorrhage.
Causes Genetics
o The exact causes are largely unknown, • Haemophilia A and B are single-gene
but some risk factors have been diseases caused by the near proximity of
identified, and these include: the genes F8 and F9 on the long arm of the
o gender – slightly more men are X chromosome.
affected than women • Since the diseases are inherited in an
o smoking autosomal recessive pattern, males are more
likely than females to develop them. This is
o certain genetic disorders such as
due to the fact that men only need one copy
Down’s syndrome
of the defective gene to be affected, while
o a weakened immune system – for
women need two copies.
example in sufferers with HIV/AIDs
• Haemophilia A affects 90% of patients,
o contact with a chemical called
making it the most common form of the
benzene
disease.
o autoimmune conditions such as
rheumatoid arthritis and ulcerative Since it spread to Queen Victoria’s
colitis. descendants across Europe, haemophilia
became known as the “Royal Disease”.
o other blood disorders
Symptoms
Treatment: Treatment varies considerably
depending on which form of leukaemia you The signs of haemophilia A and B are very
have, but common approaches include: similar.
Depending on the amount of clotting factor
o Chemotherapy
in the patient’s blood, the severity of the
o Radiotherapy
symptoms varies.
o Monoclonal antibody therapy
• Mild: 5–40% of the standard clotting factors
o A bone marrow or stem cell transplant
• Minor wounds caused by trauma or surgery
Platelet/Clotting Disorders can take a long time to heal.
Platelet and clotting disorders are mainly • Moderate: 1-5% of normal clotting factors.
hereditary disorders that cause prolonged • Severe: Just around 1% of natural clotting
bleeding due to the blood’s decreased clotting factors are present. Prolonged bleeding due
capacity. Three of the most common clotting to a significant clotting delay.
disorders are briefly described in this section: Treatment
• Haemophilia A • The primary treatment for both Haemophilia
A and B are factor concentrate therapy,
• Haemophilia B
which involves injecting clotting factors VIII
• Von Willebrand Disease
or IX into the bloodstream.
Haemophilia A and B • This medication can be used as a prophylactic
• Mutations in one of two closely related genes measure in both mild and severe situations,
on the X chromosome cause haemophilia A or it can be given ‘on-demand’ to stop
and B, which are blood disorders. bleeding after trauma. Furthermore, because
children use clotting factors at a faster rate
• Slow and inadequate blood-clotting
than adults, they require more frequent
characterises the diseases, resulting in
injections for prevention.

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• Because desmopressin stimulates both VIII an X-linked disease, and it affects both men
and von Willebrand factor (another clotting and women equally.
factor that binds to VIII and prolongs its • The condition may be inherited in a recessive
effect), it can be used to treat moderate or dominant fashion, depending on the type
haemophilia. of sickness the patient has.
• Gene therapy is being investigated as • An irregular von Willebrand gene will develop
a potential target for novel treatments, during pregnancy if neither of the parents
despite the fact that there is no method to has von Willebrand disease.
permanently augment or replace clotting
• Haemophilia may worsen later in life as
factors.
the body generates antibodies, usually as
Von willebrand disease a result of an inflammatory condition like
The most common hereditary bleeding disorder rheumatoid arthritis.
is von Willebrand factor deficiency, which is Treatment
caused by a lack, defect, or both in a protein
• Although there is no cure for Von Willebrand
called von Willebrand factor. Since this protein
Disease, Desmopressin can be used
aids in the formation of blood clots, patients’
to increase the levels of both the von
blood takes longer to clot, lengthening the time
Willebrand and VIII clotting factors. It is
it takes to avoid bleeding.
commonly given as an injection.
Genetics
• Infusions of factor VIII concentrate, which is
• Von Willebrand Disease is a hereditary high in von Willebrand factor, can be used
condition affecting the autosomal to boost clotting factor levels in the case of
chromosomes. As a result, in contrast to severe bleeding.
Haemophilia. Von Willebrand disease is not

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31 Reproductive System

Introduction individual’s transverse axis, transverse binary

All creatures, including microbes, plants, fission occurs. An example is Paramecium
and animals, must mature before they can and Planaria. During longitudinal binary
reproduce. It is because of this that the species fission, the cytoplasm divides along the
has survived for so long. When a species longitudinal axis of an individual. An example
reproduces, it secures its long-term viability. is Euglena and Vorticella.
One definition of reproduction is the biological • Because binary fission only necessitates
process through which organisms produce mitosis, the children are genetically identical
more of the same sort of thing they came from. to their parents.
Two Methods of Reproduction • Nuclei may be separated several times
• Reproduction without the aid of a mate: through Amitotic divisions. Several additional
Bacteria and protozoa may be the progeny nuclei are formed as a consequence of
of a single person. Asexual reproduction is this process. There is no cytoplasmic
the name given to this process. separation at this moment. There is a
cytoplasm surrounding each nucleus. As
• Having a Sexual Partner: Sexual reproduction
a consequence, a single cell may generate
occurs when two individuals mate. When a
both unicellular and uninucleated children.
male and female gamete mate, they produce
This kind of reproduction is known as
a new individual. In both plants and animals,
multiple fission. Think about Amoeba and
this kind of reproduction is becoming more
Paramecium as two good examples.
and more widespread.
Budding
Asexual Reproduction
• As it develops, the budding process is
• When it comes to asexual reproduction in
tethered to the mother cell, which gives
plants, the process is called “vegetative
rise to the bud. It travels inside the bud and
propagation” in lesser species, such as
elongates before splitting into two halves.
bacteria, protozoa, and algae.
• Take, for instance, yeast or any number of
• There are several species that reproduce
creatures such as sponges or hydras. Mitotic
both sexually and asexually, including
cell divisions occur in cells from diverse
sponges and hydras.
sections of the animal’s body throughout
Types of asexual reproduction this procedure.
Fission • There are two types of budding: Exogenous
• A cell’s unique identity is lost when it splits and Endogenous.
into two. For example, amoeba and bacteria. o The main difference between exogenous
The Protista and the Monera families both and endogenous budding is that in
adopt this morphology. The cytoplasm splits exogenous budding, the new organism or
first, followed by the nucleus. After that, the bud develops on the surface of the
the mother cell splits into two identical mother and then matures and detaches
daughter cells of the same size. from it while in endogenous budding,
• The cytoplasmic division may occur in either the new organism or the bud develops
direction, resulting in simple binary fission inside the mother cell.
(e.g., in an amoeba). Spore formation
• When the cytoplasm divides along the • Chlamydomonas, for example, produces
four to eight spores by dividing its cytoplasm

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and nucleus. Fungi, mosses, and ferns all o Through stem: Nephrolepis has stolons
generate spores in order to reproduce. A and offsets, whereas Pistia has runners,
new organism is created when a parent mint has suckers, and Nephrolepis has
plant releases spores. stouts.
• When an amoeba loses its pseudopodia, it Artificial Propagation in Plants
takes on a spherical shape. They’ve built a A huge number of plants have been intentionally
three-layered cyst around themselves that’s bred using natural vegetative propagation
both protective and harsh. Encyclopaedia techniques. Artificial vegetative propagation
stations are a kind of these. technologies are being developed in which the
Fragmentation plant organs are employed to build a whole
When this method of reproduction is used, the new plant from scratch. Grafting and layering
human body is broken down into a series of are both common techniques, although cutting
distinct parts. Before the animal is complete, is by far the most often used.
each section develops the remaining bodily • Cutting
parts. Regeneration is a term for this skill. o Adventitious roots may be intentionally
Planaria, Hydra, and Starfish, are a few induced and formed by planting clipped
examples. sections of root in damp soil. Lemons
Asexual Reproduction in Plants and tamarinds are two examples of crops
• Vegetative propagation that have been cultivated in this way.
o The plant’s vegetative parts, such as o In sugarcane, cuttings of stem sections
the root, stem, or leaves, may produce containing nodes are used to grow rose,
new plants. When it comes to asexual china-rose, croton, and chrysanthemum
reproduction in plants, the phrase plants. New plants are placed in damp
“vegetative propagation” is used soil in order to thrive. Roots sprout from
to describe the process. Blooming the stem’s subterranean regions, while
plants have two choices for vegetative blooms sprout from above the stem.
propagation or reproduction: natural A plant that has reached this stage of
and artificial. development is referred to as ‘cutting.’
• Natural methods The transplantation process begins with
the insertion of the cuttings into their
o When the right environmental
designated places.
circumstances are present, a new plant
may grow from an organ of the mother • Layering
plant via natural ways of propagation. The o This method is used to cultivate roses,
stems, leaves, roots, and even the flowers lemons, grapes, hibiscus, and jasmine.
of a plant may produce modified organs. It’s common to practice burying the
• Vegetative reproduction centre of a plant’s lower branches while
o Sweet potato, dahlia, and asparagus are bending and covering the tip with dirt.
all connected by their roots. An adventitious root will grow in this
o Buds may be seen on the edges of concealed portion of the plant stem.
leaves when this technique is applied. At that moment, a branch is cut and
These buds, like those in Bryophyllum, separated from the mother plant. A new
produce new seeds. plant is created as a consequence.

o Through floral buds: Dioscorea’s axillary • Grafting

buds, like those of Oxalis and Agave, o In the case of plants that have difficulty
create new plants, as has been seen in developing roots or are otherwise
plants like these. lacking, grafting is an option. This

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method may be used to connect plants from a piece of plant, such as a root or
of the same or different species. This is leaf.
done by placing the two plants’ tissues o At this moment, the callus will
in close proximity to one another. The produce new plantlets. Plants may
meristematic tissue of both plants be micropropagated using the tissue
divides and multiplies, and eventually, culture technique. Cloning
all of the cells merge into one.
• Cloning
o The term “stock plant” refers to a plant
o Genetically, a clone is identical to its
that has a strong root system. In the
parent in every respect.
context of grafting, the term “scion”
o Using a “surrogate mother” egg, the
refers to the plant that is being attached.
nucleus of a cell was put into the egg
A better-performing plant is selected as
after the nucleus had been removed.
a scion; generally, of a hardy, sturdy sort.
The womb was donated by a surrogate
Mango, Apple, Pear, Citrus, Guava, Litchi,
mother, and the ‘mother’s’ cell provided
and a variety of other fruit-bearing
the DNA.
plants can be obtained and maintained
in this manner. o It is a female mammal’s womb that has
been filled to capacity by the embryos
o When two components are joined
of other females of the same species.
together, grafting may take many
different forms, including bud grafting, Sexual Reproduction in Plants
side and tongue grafting, wedge grafting, • The flower is the reproductive organ of
crown grafting, and wedge grafting, flowering plants.
among many others. • Stamens contain pollen, the flower’s male
Significance of Vegetative Reproduction component (Androecium). Pollen grains
• Vegetative reproduction is the best way for include traces of menstrual cells. The number
plants to retain their ancestors’ qualities. of stamens in flower may vary greatly.
• Low seed viability, tiny seeds, a lengthy • Each androecium consists of two segments
dormant period, and other factors make it (stamen). The filament is located at the
a good choice for plants with less efficient base of the anther, where pollen is formed,
sexual reproduction. while the anther is located at the top.
• You may ensure disease-free plants by using • The ovary, which houses eggs or female
vegetative reproduction. reproductive cells, is the pistil’s most
feminine component (Gynoecium). There
• In order to bring forth the necessary
are three parts to the pistil: the stigma,
characteristics of the two plants.
style, and ovule.
Other Methods of Asexual Propagation
• Each bloom on most plants is divided into
• Micro propagation
a male and a female portion. Plants that
o Scientists have found that every living produce both male and female flowers are
cell or component of a plant is totipotent, referred to be “bisexual” because of this.
which means that it is capable of They’re a lonesome bunch.
making new plants. One cell, the zygote,
Pollination and Fertilisation
is responsible for producing every cell
• Wind, water, and insects all have a role in
in the body. Every part of life’s cycle is
bringing pollen and ovule together.
controlled by genes, from conception to
death. • Pollination is the process by which pollen
grains travel from the anther to the stigma
o It is now possible to develop a mass of
of a flower.
undifferentiated cells, known as callus,

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• The pollen grain’s nucleus enters the ovule series of changes that allow for reproduction.
by a pollen tube, it forms on its own. When an organism is born, it does not yet
• Fertilised ovules may be used to produce have the ability to reproduce; rather, it must
seedlings and new plants. grow and develop into maturity. Animals’
life spans are very brief, from conception
• This happens when pollen from one flower
to adulthood completing just a few months.
lands on the stigma of another and is
Possibly the longest in human history.
fertilised by an ovule on the same plant as
the pollen. Changes During Puberty
• One flower’s pollen touches the stigma of Physical changes
another on the same plant, leading to cross- • Increase in Height
pollination that culminates in the ovule’s o Bones elongate, Muscles develop
fertilisation.
• Change in body shape
Sexual Reproduction in Animals
o Chest and shoulders broaden
• Lower animals like sponges and hydras may
o Increase in fat deposition around the
reproduce asexually. They are, nonetheless,
waist
sexually capable of procreation.
• Change in voice
• The female produces eggs, while the male
o The larynx or voice box enlarges
produces sperm.
• Development of sexual organs
• At this point, the embryo is completely
formed and ready to be implanted. The • The appearance of secondary sexual
process of fertilisation is known as zygote characters
formation. o Armpit and pubic hair
• In certain cases, the egg’s development o Facial hair
may be complete or just partially complete. o Development of breasts
Oviparous animals lay eggs, such as fish,
Physiological changes
frogs, reptiles, and birds. Females of these
animals do not have uteruses. • Both sweating and the activity of the
sebaceous (oil) glands increase.
• Babies are carried by their mothers in the
wombs of animals, including cats, dogs, • Hormone levels grow in conjunction with
cows, and even humans. Viviparous is the increased food consumption.
term used to describe them. • Growth hormone is secreted by the anterior
• The tapeworm and the earthworm may have pituitary gland to control development. The
all of their sexual components inside the testes generate sperm and testosterone,
same organism. People who identify as either whereas the ovaries create oestrogen and
male or female are called hermaphrodites. progesterone.

• Every other species has male and female Menstruation

reproductive systems, including testes and • There are the same number of eggs in
ovaries in both sexes. each woman’s ovaries (eggs). Pupil-hood
Reproduction in Humans is a critical time for the development of
certain characteristics. Every 28 to 30
• The body goes through a lot of changes as
days, as the ovary matures, one mature
it reaches the reproductive stage of life. It
ovum is produced. Follicle Stimulus
begins at the age of 10 or 11 and lasts until
Hormone, produced by the anterior pituitary
the age of 18 or 19. This time in one’s life is
gland, is the hormone responsible for this.
referred to as adolescence.
Each ovary loses one ovum (egg) each
• During puberty, a person’s body experiences a month.

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• The fallopian tube is where the ovum (egg) this point, it has cells and a cavity called
flows to the uterus from the fallopian canal. the blastocoel, and it is lodged in the
• As a result of LH production by the anterior thicker uterine wall where numerous blood
pituitary, the uterine wall becomes thicker capillaries have formed.
in preparation for sperm implantation. • The egg will go bad if it isn’t fertilised.
• A lack of fertilisation causes the uterus to Bleeding or menstrual discharge occurs
thicken and lose its blood veins. It’s known when the uterine wall thickens, and
as menstruation or time. capillaries break down (menstruation).
• When a woman’s menstrual cycle begins, • This newly-named foetus develops into
it is known as menarche or the first week. a fully-fledged person inside the uterus
Between the ages of 45 and 55, a woman over the course of around 280 days until
enters menopause, which is defined as the it is delivered under the influence of the
end of menstruation. hormone oxytocin, which is secreted by the
Organs of Reproduction posterior pituitary.
Males Pre-fertilisation Events
• A pair of Testes: Generate Sperm through Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis. These are located outside • Gametogenesis is the process through
the body in scrotal sacs to keep the sperms which gametes are produced. The two types
at a temperature 2 degrees lower than the of gametes are male and female gametes,
body descended from male and female parents,
• Two sperm ducts or vasa deferentia respectively. Gametes are made up of
(Singular: Vas deferens): Each arises from haploid (n) cell types.
the testis and passes up into the body to • The terms “isogametes” and “homogametes”
join together and form the ejaculatory duct. refer to gametes that are visually similar.
• One Ejaculatory Duct: It is a common duct They have the same morphological and
for the passage of urine and sperms. physiological traits that distinguish them
(e.g., Cladophora, Ulothrix).
• One Penis: Muscular organ helps to transfer
sperm into the female body. • Most organisms that reproduce sexually have
two unique kinds of gametes, which differ
Females in both morphology and physiology. Certain
• Oogenesis is the process through which two gametes are referred to as heterogametes or
ovaries produce ova/eggs. isogametes. There are two types of gametes
• Two fallopian tubes serve as oviducts, which in the human reproductive system: male
carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus for and female. The male gamete is referred to
fertilisation and development. as an antherozoid or sperm, whereas the
female gamete is referred to as an egg or
• One uterus: The place where the embryo is
ovum.
implanted and grows
• There are always haploid gametes in the
• The uterine orifice has just one cervix.
human body. If the parent is diploid or
• Opening; in the vagina of a woman
haploid, it doesn’t make a difference. It is
Fertilisation and Embryonic Development in via the process of mitotic division that the
Humans haploid progeny of a species is produced.
• An egg’s nuclei from sperm and egg are Gamete Transfer
combined to produce a zygote.
• For fertilisation to occur, the male and
• An egg or zygote, after being fertilised, female gametes must meet. Normally, the
begins to divide over and over again. At male gamete moves about while the female

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gamete stays put. Gamete transfer requires gametes are brought into contact with the
the use of a suitable medium. The transfer fertilised egg and fused together. Inside the
of gametes from one species of algae to female body, this takes place.
another is accomplished by the use of water. • Post-fertilization Events
o Male gametes fail to fertilise the female Zygote
gametes in large numbers. Thus, male
• Zygote (2n) creation is a natural part of
gametes are produced in greater
sexual reproduction. There are two types of
abundance than female gametes.
fertilisation: External and Internal. External
o On the angiosperm side, pollen grains fertilisation occurs in the external medium
hold the male gametes, while ovules (water), while Internal fertilisation occurs
house the egg cells. Pollen seeds within the organisms.
are produced by the anthers and
• The zygote’s future development is
then transported to the stigma. This
influenced by the organism’s life cycle and
phenomenon is known as pollination.
the environment to which it is exposed.
Insects, animals, wind, and water must
• Unicellular organisms (such as Paramoecium)
all be involved in pollination in order for
reproduce sexually by generating male and
a plant to thrive.
female gamete nuclei, which they exchange
o In the ovule, pollen grains germinate
across an inter-cytoplasmic membrane. Two
and the pollen tubes that contain male
individuals’ gamete nuclei fuse together to
gametes reach the ovule and release
produce the zygote’s cytoplasmic bridge
two gametes near the egg cell, which
later. Such sexual reproduction is known as
are fertilised.
conjugal insemination (CI).
o Since male and female gametes develop
Embryogenesis
in distinct individuals in bisexual animals,
• Embryogenesis is the process through
and the organism must acquire a unique
which an embryo grows from a zygote into a
method for gamete transfer. Fertilisation
full-fledged organism. During development,
would be impossible without it.
the zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis)
Fertilisation
and cell differentiation.
• It’s termed syngamy when male and female
• As the embryo develops, cell divisions
gametes are fused together. A diploid zygote
increase the number of cells, while cell
is generated as a consequence. Fertilisation
differentiation aids in the formation of
is the name given to this process.
specialised tissues and organs by allowing
• Syngamy occurs outside of the organism groups of cells to undergo specific
in the vast majority of algae, fish, and alterations.
amphibians. A process that results in this
• The term “viviparous” refers to an animal
form of gametic fusion is known as “external
in which the zygote develops within the
fertilisation”. Bony fish and frogs, which
mother’s body.
have a high reproductive rate, exhibit this
trait. Predators have an easy prey target in • Fertilised eggs coated in hard calcareous
the young. This puts their very existence in shells are placed in a secure area in the
jeopardy. environment by oviparous animals like
reptiles and birds. Young ones emerge from
• Within the body of the organism, syngamy
the womb after a time of incubation.
occurs in plants, reptiles, birds, and
mammals (e.g., mushrooms, bryophytes, • Vivid animals, like mammals and humans,
and pteridophytes). As a result, internal have zygotes that grow into living children
fertilisation is the name given to the that are delivered from the mother’s body.
procedure. In this way, the roving male Because of proper embryonic care and

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protection, viviparous organisms have a Contraception, on the other hand, has

better chance of surviving their young. a similarly low rate of success thus the
chances of failure are just as high.
Reproductive health
Barrier methods
• Reproduction takes into account the
physical, emotional, behavioural, and • In this method, sperms and ovum are
social dimensions of health. Reproductive physically prevented from meeting with the
health and appropriate social relations help of barriers.
are hallmarks of a society where people o Condoms: Barriers made of thin rubber
have normal reproductive organs that are or latex sheath that cover the penis in
both physically and functionally normal. males and the cervix in females.
It’s good for reproduction if they’re able to o Condoms for both sexes are thrown
communicate their feelings to one other. away.
Reproductive Health Problems and Strategies o STDs may be prevented by using
• In 1951, India began implementing national condoms, which keep genital fluids from
family planning policies. We wanted to be coming into touch.
as healthy as possible in terms of our ability o Cervical caps, diaphragms, and vaults
to get pregnant. They were re-evaluated on are put into the female cervix during
a regular basis. childbirth. Procreation via sex.
• Raising public awareness about various Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)
elements of reproduction and providing • These devices are inserted into the uterus
services and tools for individuals to build by doctors or expert nurses through the
a reproductively safe community are the vagina.
goals of RCH programmes. o Non-medicated IUDs like Lippes Loop,
Contraception which enhance sperm phagocytosis, are
Natural Methods similar in this regard to these IUDs.
• The goal is to minimise the chance that o Sperm motility is decreased by Copper-T,
sperm and egg may come into touch. Copper-7, and Multiload 375, all of which
• When the odds of ovulation are at their release copper when used in an IUD.
maximum, spouses should forgo coitus for o If an IUD releases hormones like
10-17 days of their cycle. Avoiding sex at Progestasert or LNG-20, implantation of
this time of year diminishes the chance of a foetus in the uterus is difficult.
conceiving. o As a consequence, the cervix becomes
• Withdrawal, or coitus interruptus, is the inhospitable to sperm.
medical term for this condition. Before
o These contraceptives are among the
ejaculating, the man pulls his penis away
most commonly used methods of
from the vagina. It’s unable to discharge
female contraception and are excellent
semen; hence insemination is impossible.
for family planning.
• Lactational amenorrhea is the absence of
menstruation when breastfeeding. There are Oral Contraceptives
fewer chances of becoming pregnant during • This method is used to give oral progestogens
this period since there is no menstruation or progesterone-oestrogen combinations.
and hence no ovulation. This strategy only The first day of a woman’s menstrual cycle
works for a short period of time after six is the beginning of her 21-day period of using
months of diligent breastfeeding. the pads. After a 7-day menstrual period,
• There are no concerns of unwanted side cycles continue until the female decides to
effects since no chemicals are used. get pregnant.

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• These drugs alter the quality of cervical • Urinary discharge that is discoloured and
mucus, preventing sperm from entering the smells unpleasant in both sexes.
uterus, and slowing or preventing ovulation
• Pain during urinating.
and implantation.
• It is possible for women to feel lower back
Injectable and implants and abdominal discomfort.
• Progesterone injections and implants may • It’s possible for infected people to pass
be utilised by women, either alone or in on the disease to their partners without
conjunction with oestrogens. Similar to showing any signs of illness themselves.
tablets, these injectables and implants STDs are more common in young women
provide a longer-lasting impact. because their vaginal mucosa is still
Surgical methods developing.
• Pregnancy is prevented through surgical HIV/AIDS
surgery, which stops the transfer of gametes. • A significant cause of AIDS is an infection
Often referred to as sterilising since they with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus
are the last forms of contraception. A (HIV) (HIV). Viral RNA makes up the majority
vasectomy is used to sterilise men, whereas of HIV’s genetic makeup. A broad spectrum
a tubectomy is used to sterilise women. of pathogenic infections may infect the body
o Vasectomy: Vas deferens is tied up or since the immune system is decimated.
removed through a small incision in the • T cells are infected, and the virus multiplies
scrotum by the tens or hundreds of millions.
o Tubectomy: A small part of the fallopian
• An HIV-infected individual may remain
tube is tied up or removed through a
symptom-free for up to ten years before
small incision in the abdomen or the
developing any symptoms. The immune
vagina.
system’s T-helper cell count decreases with
• These operations have very low reversibility, time as a person’s capacity to fight against
notwithstanding their effectiveness. numerous infections decreases. AIDS has
• Contraceptive methods are often used in an reached an advanced stage where it can no
effort to slow down population increase. longer be treated.
• However, other methods of contraception HIV may be transmitted from one infected
may bring side effects such as nausea or individual to another individual by the following
stomach pain, irregular menstruation, or mechanisms:
even breast cancer in some women. • Sexual intercourse that is unprotected.
Reproductive Tract Infections and Sexually • Syringes and needles that have been
Transmitted Diseases contaminated with blood
• The transmission of gametes is halted • Breast milk and utero (in the womb)
by surgical intervention, which prevents transmission of infection from an infected
pregnancy. Said to be “sterilising” since they mother
are among the few remaining methods of
Infertility
birth control available.
Sexual cohabitation prevents infertile people
• Vasectomies are performed to sterilise
from having children. From inherited to genetic
males, while tubectomy is used to sterilise
to pharmacological or even psychological
women.
causes, you may discover a variety of
Symptoms of STDs
explanations for this. Couples who cannot
• Genital or anus itchiness or discomfort. undertake remedial treatment may be able to
• Uro-genital region rash and blisters. use assisted reproductive technology (ART).

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• In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF): It’s a method in uses the donor ovum and grows it in her
which gametes are fertilised outside of the uterus, allowing it to fertilise and mature.
body under conditions that are very close
• Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI): In
to those found within. The fertilised zygote
vitro fertilisation is the name given to the
is stimulated to divide into embryonic cells.
process of producing an embryo within an
The embryo is transferred to the uterus of
egg by injecting a sperm directly into the
the female, where it is implanted.
cell.
• Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT): The
• Artificial insemination (AI) technique:
zygote or early embryo (up to 8 blastomeres)
Either the patient or a healthy donor’s or
can be transferred into the fallopian tube of
husband’s semen is placed artificially in the
the female.
vagina or uterus (intrauterine insemination,
• Intrauterine Transfer (IUT): Embryos with or IUI). Professionals and expensive
more than 8 blastomeres can be transferred equipment are required to undertake all of
directly into the uterus these procedures. Legal adoption is another
• Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT): option for couples who want to establish a
Rather than using her own eggs, this lady family.

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32 Evolution

Introduction • Because of their beneficial genetic variants,

Evolution is a branch of biology that focuses on organisms can better withstand harsh
the evolution of life on Earth. To comprehend the environments.
development of flora and fauna over millions of • Adaptability is a by-product of variety. They
years, it is necessary to understand the genesis are passed down the generations because
of life on Earth, starting with the evolution of of their hereditary nature.
the Earth, stars, and the cosmos itself. In the • Natural selection favours those who are
history of the cosmos, the beginning of life is able to adapt to their surroundings and
thought to be a one-time occurrence. The Big hence are considered fit.
Bang Theory tries to explain the origin of the • Darwinism’s fundamental ideas are:
universe to us via its theory.
o Natural selection: Survival of the fittest
The Theory of the Big Bang by nature in the face of a changing
• The explosion of dense stuff from a environment.
singularity. o Theory of common descent: Organisms
• As a result, the cosmos widened and cooled are descended from common ancestors
dramatically. due to the accumulation of variations.
• Hydrogen and helium were eventually Lamarck Theory of Evolution: (Theory of
produced after a period of time. Inheritance of Acquired Characters)
• Gravitation forced the gases to condense. • The French naturalist Lamarck posited that
These stars produced the galaxies in the organ usage and organ disuse are the driving
cosmos around 4.5 billion years ago in the forces behind evolution in living organisms.
Milky Way galaxy. During this epoch, the • He used a giraffe to illustrate this point. As
solar system is supposed to have produced a consequence, this personality trait was
the Earth. developed out of a need to survive and
How Things Got This Way adapt. Foraging for leaves from higher trees
• The origin of life refers to the development required the development of long necks.
of the simplest primordial life from a • Later generations inherited this character
nonliving substance. trait. As a result, the long necks of giraffes
• In biology, the process of life’s steady were gradually acquired over a lengthy
transition from simpler species to more period of time.
sophisticated ones is known as evolution. Mechanism of Evolution
• The best and the bravest are the ones Evolution is the result of forces acting on the
who survive. Darwin defined fitness as the Natural Selection of Variation. Reproductive
capacity to adapt to and endure change. As isolation, which keeps organisms different,
a result, only the strongest creatures are preserves Organic Evolution’s elemental
able to thrive and generate more offspring powers. When natural selection favours
than their weaker counterparts. variation, it spreads from an individual member
Biological Evolution of a population to the whole population via
• Darwin’s theory of evolution relies on natural a process called “differential reproduction”.
selection as its central tenet. Variations may be seen in the following areas:

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• Mutation: It refers to an abrupt change • It is the forelimb that consists of the

in one’s genetic make-up. One gene humerus, radius and ulna as well as the
may be altered (a genetic mutation or a carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
point mutation), or several genes may be • The pentadactyl (five-finger) leg was the
affected (a large-scale genetic mutation) ancestor of all other vertebrate forelimbs,
(chromosomal mutation). which explains their striking likeness
• Genetic recombination: All reproduction despite their apparent differences.
occurs in sexually reproducing organisms.
During zygote formation, the parents’
chromosomes and genes mix at random. No
two children are precisely identical, even if
they have the same lineage. Crossing over,
a procedure used to create gametes, is the
most diverse.
• Gene flow: During sexual reproduction, Fig. 32.1 Homology And Adaptation In Bones Of
genes from closely related species might The Forelimbs Of Some Vertebrates
mix by accident. Analogous Organs
• Genetic drift: A tiny population is formed • Analogous organs are structures that are
when a portion of a larger population is cut functionally similar but physically distinct.
off. The tiny population may develop into a
• Although the wing function is similar in
new subspecies or species if the appropriate
both insects (flying) and vertebrates (such
conditions are met.
as birds and bats), the insect wing is
Evidence of Evolution structurally distinct from the vertebrate
Data from a wide range of biological disciplines wing.
supports the theory of natural evolution. People
who are being targeted include:
Evidence from Morphology
Distinct species and classes have many
similarities, despite the fact that they’re
Fig. 32.2 Analogy Between Wings of Insects
completely different. Morphological evidence is And of Different Vertebrates
used to obtain evolutionary evidence; Organs
Vestigial Organs
that are similar or identical to one another and
Organs that are no longer functional. There • Anything that is no longer functional or
are similarities among numerous organs of complete but may have formerly been
different vertebrate taxa, indicating common functioning in an ancestor is classified as a
ancestry. vestigial organ.

Homologous Organs • As a result, it is only possible to explain the

existence of these non-functional organs
• A homologous organ is one that shares
by their transmission from an ancestor who
a structure and origin but differs in
had them working.
appearance and function.
• Vertebrate forelimbs have organs that are
homologous. Many of these products are
unique and serve various duties even if they
are built on the same fundamental idea.
Fig. 32.3 Some Vestigial Organs In The Human
Body

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Connecting Links Evidence from Palaeontology

• Animals and plants that may demonstrate • Fossils are the subject of palaeontology, the
features from two separate groups of science that studies them. There are several
creatures are known as “connecting links”. types of fossils, including hard petrified
• The linkage between creatures proves pieces of animal and plant remnants,
that one group originated from the other, moulds, castings, and tracks.
establishing continuity in the sequence • Fossils of bacteria, invertebrates, fish,
of species. Archaeopteryx, a prehistoric amphibians, and reptiles dating back to the
bird that served as a connection between oldest periods of geological time, followed
reptiles and birds, is an excellent illustration by those of birds and mammals, with
of this. Like lizards, this bird had a long, human fossils being the most recent among
bony tail and a beak full of fangs. Like birds, mammals’ primordial fossils.
it possessed feathers on its wings and on Molecular Evidence of Evolution
its body. All organisms have cells as the basic unit of
life. The cell is made of biomolecules common
to all organisms.
• The cellular organelles known as ribosomes
are found in all species.
• All species, apart from a few viruses, have
DNA as their primary genetic material.
• Energy is stored and released in the
Fig. 32.4 An Extinct Bird – Archeopteryx molecule ATP, which is used in biological
Evidence from Embryology activities.
• The study of an organism’s growth and • Proteins in almost all species are made up
development is known as embryology. of the same 22 amino acids.
• embryology supports the theory of organic • However, the evolutionary ties between
evolution by focusing on the following: creatures that have similar chemical
o It’s common for all creatures to go features are tighter. For instance,
through the same early phases of o Only plants and certain algae contain
development (such as the moult or chlorophyll hence they are more closely
gastrula, or morula). linked to chimpanzee blood proteins
o In the early stages of development, the than to those of any other primates.
embryos of all vertebrates are quite o The phrase “molecular homology” or
similar in form and structure. “biochemical homology” refers to the
o Because of the similarities, it is hard to study of chemical similarities between
tell them apart. species, and it has recently been used
o The zygote is the starting point for all to identify evolutionary links and provide
vertebrates. Every one of them goes the foundations for systematics.
through a two-layered blastula and a Stages in Human Evolution
three-layered gastrula stage before During the Miocene epoch, the Hominid family
reaching a fish-like stage with gill slits split into two subfamilies; apes and humans
at some point in their development. belong to the Pongidae and Hominidae families
o Everything we know about embryology (humans). It’s unclear exactly when the ape
points to the existence of a common and human ancestors split apart.
ancestor for all vertebrates.

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Dryopithecus: Dryopithecus is the Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis

common ancestor of apes and humans. • Over the course of history, Homo sapiens
diverged from Home Erectus. During this
• Ramapithecus: The earliest traces of transitional period, two distinct subspecies
Ramapithecus were discovered in the of Homo sapiens were discovered.
Shivalik Hills of Punjab, then subsequently Neanderthals are the more primitive of
in Africa and Saudi Arabia. There were no the two, while Homo sapiens are the more
trees in the area where the Ramapithecines modern.
lived, but rather an open grassland. Because • The first Neanderthal fossil identified was
of their powerful jaws, thicker tooth enamel, a skull cap found in Germany. Compared to
and shorter canines, they are considered contemporary humans, Neanderthals had a
hominid fossils. larger cranial capacity.
• Australopithecus: The ancestor of the • Their culture has been dubbed the
Homo genus was in this group. The first “Mousterian” culture. There were also a
Australopithecine was found in 1924 by couple of little hand axes found. This is
Raymond Dart in a South African limestone the first time that spearhead-like flakes of
quarry. In their day, they were able to walk stone have been found.
upright, live on the ground, and hunt tiny
• Because it was winter, the cave’s door had
animals using stones for weapons. They
been covered with stretched hide and a
were between the ages of 4 and 9 and
firework had been set at the entrance.
weighed between 60 and 90 pounds each.
Large creatures such as elephants and
• Home Erectus: It was in Java in 1891 when rhinoceroses were no match for the
Eugene Dubois discovered the evidence of Neanderthals.
this Homo species for the first time. This
The Denisovans or Denisova hominins are
new species was given the name “erect
an extinct species or subspecies of archaic
apeman”; Pithecanthropus erectus. The
humans that ranged across Asia during the
“missing link” is the term used to describe
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic. They were
it.
distantly related to Neanderthals.
o Peking Man: It was a new find in China.
Unlike Australopithecus, who had a
smaller cranium, this group of humans Homo Sapiens
had a larger one and utilised fire. An • Cro-Magnon was the name given to the
estimated 775-1300 cubic centimetres earliest skeletal remains of Homo sapiens
of space might be found in the skulls found in Europe. Homo sapiens exhibits
of early Homo, including the Java and the latter stages of jaw reduction, the
Peking populations. The Acheulean tool appearance of the modern man’s chin, and
heritage is tied to the manner of life of the rounding of the cranium.
Homo Erectus. The bulk of stone tools
• About 1350 cubic centimetres of cranial
was composed of quartz. Weapons
capacity was the average. Cro-magnon is a
made of bone and wood have also been
near ancestor of modern humans.
discovered, including wooden arrows.
This shows that large game hunting was • Upper Paleolithic is the term used to
done in a cooperative manner, as shown describe their 35,000-year-old culture.
by the evidence. It seems that Homo Hunting and collecting seem to have been
Erectus was an early cave dweller. The the primary means of obtaining sustenance.
usage of fire has been documented, The earliest works of art appeared during
which is a huge step forward. this time period. Most of the cave paintings
depicted animals.

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33 Biotechnology

Introduction and add just the desired ones. The following

Karl Ereky used the term “biotechnology” in is a breakdown of the steps in genetic
1919 to describe the manufacture of goods engineering:
from raw materials using living organisms. o Recombinant DNA synthesis (rDNA)
Biotechnology is made up of the terms bios o Cloning the desired gene
(which means biology) and technology (which
o It is then necessary to transplant the
means technology) (meaning technology).
newly cloned gene into a living creature.
It is therefore, a part of biotechnology that
deals with the industrial utilisation of living Origin of replication
organisms and their biochemical and genetic • DNA replication may be triggered by a certain
processes in order to get the greatest benefit chromosomal DNA sequence. In order
from microorganisms. One of the most common for the foreign DNA to replicate, it must
uses of biotechnology are the invention of new be connected to the host chromosome’s
diagnostic tools, such as gene therapy and replication origin. It’s likely that the foreign
forensic DNA fingerprinting. gene won’t be able to proliferate if it isn’t
Types of Biotechnology connected to the Ori (origin of replication)
Types of Biotechnology
sequence.
Cloning
• The process of duplicating a template DNA
into many identical copies.
Plasmid
• Circularly replicating material found
outside of the chromosomes. Cloning and
expression vectors are both possible with
the use of plasmids. Plasmids containing
foreign genes are introduced and then
Principles of Biotechnology
allowed to flourish. As a consequence, the
• In contemporary biotechnology, the two
chosen gene multiplies.
primary approaches are:
Antibiotic resistance gene
o Genetic engineering is the process of
directly altering an organism’s DNA and • Antibiotic-resistant plasmids include a gene
RNA genome. The addition of new genes that confers the ability to proliferate in the
to improve a certain function or feature presence of the antibiotic to the bacterium.
is the goal. The most important tool in These genes are used as markers for cloning
genetic engineering is gene cloning. and transfection.
o Chemical engineering procedures need Restriction enzymes
a sterile atmosphere to be maintained. • It is a class of enzymes that is capable of
When developing a microbe, choose just cleaving DNA into fragments. Molecular
the one you wish to grow. Antibiotics, scissors are another name for them. For
vaccinations, and other medicines all each DNA sequence, the restriction enzyme
rely on this. has a unique cut. A gene may be placed into
• It is the purpose of genetic engineering to a specific location by removing it from the
remove undesirable genes from organisms vector or host DNA and cutting it out.

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Vectors bonds join G and C, only two connect A

• Particles that spread and carry a specific and T. G and C, like A and T, complement
gene from one organism to another are each other effectively.
known as “plasmids.” • DNA is normally housed in the nucleus
Ligase of cells; however, it may also be found in
organelles such as mitochondria.
• The enzymes that are involved in the
synthesis of the desired gene segment
with the host DNA. Ligases work by fusing
together segments of DNA.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid is the abbreviation
for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It’s a molecule
that holds the instructions that allow an
organism to grow, live, and reproduce.
• It is a nucleic acid and one of the four
primary kinds of macromolecules required
for all living forms.
• In eukaryotes, it is located in the nucleus,
with a minor quantity of DNA being present
in the mitochondria.
Structure of DNA Fig. 33.1 Components of a DNA Double Helix

• When Francis Crick and James Watson Types of DNA based on the Location DNA
discovered the DNA structure in 1953, the Nuclear DNA
world was forever changed. DNA’s ladderlike • It’s located in the nucleus of eukaryotic
structure has two halves. cells.
• Ladder steps alternate between deoxyribose • In most cases, each cell has two copies.
(deoxyribonucleic acid), phosphate, and • Nuclear DNA chromosomes have open
nitrogen bases. ends and are made up of 46 chromosomes
• Four nitrogen bases are Adenine (A), Thymine totalling three billion nucleotides.
(T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C). Nitrogen • Nuclear DNA is diploid, meaning it inherits
bases have been matched to the letter. genetic material from both parents. The
o This is because the two atoms’ combined mutation rate in nuclear DNA is less than
mass is exactly equal to the sum of their 0.3 per cent.
individual parts. Hydrogen bonds bind Mitochondrial DNA
the two partners together. • It may be present in the mitochondria of
o Hydrogen bonds connect the two cells.
strands’ bases. Chargaff ’s rule governs • Each cell contains between 100 and 1000
base pairing. copies.
o Because adenine and thymine are both • The chromosomes of mitochondrial DNA
purine bases, it is impossible to have are normally circular and closed.
adenine without thymine. A matched pair • Mitochondrial DNA is haploid, which means
includes the pyrimidine Cytosine and the it is handed down entirely from mother to
purine base Guanine. Complementary daughter.
bases are the name given to these kinds
• Mitochondrial DNA mutation rates are often
of foundations. While three hydrogen
higher than those of nuclear DNA.

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Functions of DNA RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

• In most living creatures, DNA serves as • Is composed of phosphate and sugar, as
the genetic material. It transports genetic well as nucleic acids like guanosine and
information from one cell to the next and cytosine.
from one generation to the next. • The nucleotides that make up RNA are
• As a result, its primary functions are as similar to those that make up DNA.
follows: • Only one strand makes up this helix.
• Keeping track of genetic information • The 5′ end of the strand has a phosphate
• Protein synthesis may be directed. group, and the 3′ end has as well (with a
• Identifying genetic code hydroxyl group).
• Metabolic activity, evolution, heredity, and • DNA’s building components are
differentiation are all directly influenced by ribonucleotides.
this protein. • The ribonucleotides are held together by 3′
• It’s a more stable molecule that can store – 5′ phosphodiester linkages.
more complicated data for longer periods of • Nucleotides are made up of nitrogenous
time. bases like adenine, cytosine, uracil and
guanine.

The differences in the RNA structure from that of DNA

• The bases of RNA, for example, are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U) (U).
• As a result, in DNA, uracil (U) is exchanged for thymine (T), and vice versa.
• In contrast to thymine, the nucleotide uracil may form adenine base pairs.
• In RNA, the sugar is ribose rather than deoxyribose.
• Adenosine, guanosine, cytidine, and uridine are the ribonucleosides that correspond to them.
RNases 5’-triphosphates (RNases) include ATP, GTP, CTP, and UTP, and have been demonstrated
to correlate with adenosine 5’-triphosphate (ATP) (UTP).

Fig. 33.2 RNA vs DNA

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Types of RNA which are produced when cytoplasmic

• mRNA (messenger) rRNAs and proteins come together.
• rRNA (ribosomal) • As the mRNA moves through the translation
process, these structures help in the building
• tRNA (transfer)
of amino acids into polypeptides. tRNAs
mRNA and other crucial components for protein
• This RNA makes up around 5% of the total synthesis are bound by these molecules.
RNA in the cell. Function
• The most varied of the three types of RNA in • rRNA directs the translation of mRNA into
terms of base size and sequence. proteins.
• Codons, which are triplets of nucleotides tRNA
transcribed from DNA during the transcription
• With about 75-95 nucleotides, tRNA is the
stage, contain the genetic code.
smallest of the three kinds of RNA.
• During post-transcriptional processing,
• The transfer of amino acids during protein
guanosine triphosphate nucleotides are
synthesis is the major function of tRNAs,
added to mRNAs at the 5’ end to aid mRNA
which are essential components of
recognition during translation or protein
translation. As a result, they’re known as
synthesis.
transfer RNAs.
• This may be accomplished by introducing
• Each of the 20 amino acids has its own
an A “tail” or a large number of adenylate
tRNA, which attaches to it and transfers
residues into the 3’ end of an mRNA. Each of
it to the polypeptide chain as it grows. In
an mRNA’s ends contributes to the stability
the translation of the genetic code of mRNA
of the mRNA.
into proteins, tRNAs also serve as adapters.
Function As a result, they’re also known as adapter
• mRNA converts the DNA-encoded genetic molecules.
nformation into a form that may be used to Function
make proteins.
• Each 3-nucleotide codon of rRNA is
• mRNA carries genetic information from the represented by tRNA, which transports
nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell. amino acids to the ribosome. After that, the
rRNA amino acids may be joined and processed
• The ribosomes, which house 80% of the to form polypeptides and proteins.
cell’s RNA, contain ribosomes. Genes
• The two basic components of ribosomes • Because genes are composed of DNA,
are the small ribosomal subunits that read they are functional units of heredity. The
RNA and the big ribosomal subunits that chromosome is made up of DNA and
link amino acids to form polypeptide chains. contains a large number of genes. Every
Each subunit contains one or more rRNA gene has a specific set of instructions for a
molecules, as well as a variety of ribosomal certain function or proteincoding. To put it
proteins (r-protein). another way, genes are in charge of heredity.
• Ribosomes include small and large • In 1905, William Bateson coined the word
rRNAs, indicating that they are found in genetics. Wilhelm Johannes, who coined the
the ribosome’s small and large subunits, name Gene in 1909, was the first to use it.
respectively. • Each cell in the human body has around
• It is at this region of protein synthesis that 30000 genes. Only 2% of the genome is
the enzymes required for the process are made up of DNA that can be found in genes.
synthesised and located inside ribosomes, Much research has been undertaken on the

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subject, with almost 13000 genes discovered plasmids use foreign DNA segments with
on each of the chromosomes. the same base sequence as their missing
Functions of genes regions to replace them. Recombinant
• The functions of DNA and RNA are regulated plastids are formed, and the DNA is rDNA or
by genes. recombinant DNA.

• Proteins are the most important components • The bacterium that picks up the recombinant
in the human body since they not only serve plasmids is now injected into or mixed with
as building blocks for muscles, connective the recombinant plasmids.
tissue and skin but also as catalysts for • The bacterium’s r-plasmids proliferate in
enzyme synthesis. tandem with the host bacteria. A clone
• These enzymes play an important part in the of bacteria having rDNA is obtained quite
body’s chemical processes and reactions. As quickly. This kind of bacterial clone, which
a result, protein synthesis is responsible for has several copies of the desired gene, may
all of the body’s actions, which are mostly be saved for future use. As an example, the
regulated by genes. human insulin gene may be placed into a
bacterial plasmid and insulin extracted
• Genes are made up of a distinct collection
from the bacterial clone when required, as
of instructions or functions. The globin gene,
previously indicated.
for example, was told to make haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is a protein that aids in the Use of recombinant DNA technology
transport of oxygen in the blood. • Antibodies, hormones, vitamins,
Recombinant DNA technology vaccinations, and other essential substances
are manufactured. These are made by
• With the use of a transferring agent or
putting the genes for them into bacteria and
vector, the desired gene, which is a DNA
then using cloned copies of the bacterium
segment of a certain nucleotide sequence,
to make the necessary compounds.
is introduced to the DNA of another creature
• To create enzymes that are utilised in the
(usually a bacterium). Recombinant DNA,
cheese-making process
or rDNA, is a modified DNA molecule that
carries DNA from two separate origins. DNA • Using recombinant bacteria to break down
splicing is the process of connecting two contaminants (bioremediation).
DNA strands together. • Using rDNA technology, clone certain genes
Steps in the production of rDNA and create a gene bank.

• With the aid of restriction endonucleases or • Gene therapy uses rDNA for the treatment
restriction enzymes, the required section of of genetic abnormalities and illnesses.
DNA is cut from the cells (e.g., human cells). • By introducing genes into plants using rDNA
These enzymes may be found in a variety technology, beneficial plants (transgenic
of microorganisms. They locate and cut plants) resistant to herbicides (chemicals
particular nucleotide sequences in a DNA used to eliminate weeds) or insect pests
molecule. may be produced.
• In a plasmid, the same restriction enzyme Biotechnological Application in Agriculture
cleaves the same exact nucleotide sequence. Agriculture uses biotechnology in a variety of
A plasmid is a bacterium’s ringshaped DNA ways. It may be used in agrochemicals, organic
molecule. It is not a component of the agriculture, and crop-based agriculture that is
bacterium’s chromosome. It serves as a genetically modified.
vehicle for introducing foreign DNA into the • It has the capability of being used to
host cell. generate genetically modified organisms.
• The cleaved plasmids are then combined GMOs are genetically modified organisms
with the required DNA segments. These (GMOs) whose genetic material has been

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changed. The following are just a few of insulin is the essential problem with
the many uses for genetically engineered insulin manufacturing.
organisms: Gene therapy
o Crops that are resistant to abiotic • Gene therapy is used to treat inherited
conditions such as heat, cold, and other illnesses. Gene therapy is the process of
extremes. correcting genetic abnormalities.
o Crops that are pest-resistant. • To replace the defective gene, a normal
o Assist in the reduction of post-harvest gene is injected into the human or embryo.
losses. In 1990, a 4-year-old child with Adenosine
o Plants can use minerals effectively. deaminase deficiency received the first
gene therapy.
o Food that has higher nutritional value.
• Adenosine deaminase insufficiency was
• The development of pest-resistant plants is previously treated with bone marrow
the most significant use of biotechnology. transplantation and enzyme replacement
o Bacillus thuringiensis is a type of treatment. However, neither strategy is
bacteria that generates an insecticidal totally curative.
toxin called Bt toxin. To give insect or Molecular diagnosis
pest resistance, gene codes for Bt toxin
• It uses tools like ELISA, PCR, and
may be extracted and introduced into
recombinant DNA technologies to help in an
the plant.
illness diagnosis.
o Bt-cotton: Bacillus thuringiensis • ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent test)
produces proteins that may kill insects is a disease detection method based on
such as lepidopterans, coleopterans, antigen and antibody reactions.
and dipterans. They produce insecticidal
• A method for amplifying particular DNA
protein, which is active once it reaches
fragments is PCR (polymerase chain
the body of the insect. When this toxin
reaction). This aids in the detection of HIV
binds to the midgut, it causes the insect’s
in AIDS patients.
cells to expand, killing it. Bt genes have
been isolated and put into cotton plants. Transgenic animals
This kind of cotton is referred to as Bt • Transgenic animals are those whose DNA
cotton. The genes “cryIAc” and “cryIIAc” has been modified. Rabbits, rats, sheep,
code for insecticidal protein. pigs, and other animals are examples.
Biotechnology Applications in Medicine • These animals aid in the research of how
• Biotechnology has made a significant genes are controlled and how they aid in
contribution to the medical field. Medicinal animal growth.
biotechnology is the application of • It aids in the investigation of how genes
biotechnology in medicine. contribute to the development of certain
• They describe how to make Humulin, which illnesses.
is a genetically modified insulin. This is • They have the potential to be exploited to
beneficial to a huge proportion of diabetic create valuable compounds. They may also
people. be utilised for medication and vaccination
o Insulin was formerly taken from the testing.
pancreatic of slaughtered animals like Application of biotechnology in the food
cows and pigs. Such insulin has the processing industry
potential to trigger human allergies. The • Food processing is used to transform
generation of mature and assembled non-palatable and quickly perishable raw

182 Biotechnology
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materials into edible and drinkable meals • The garbage gathered from organic and
and beverages with a longer shelf life. biomass wastes is one of the most visible
Microbial organisms and the by-products examples of clean energy; these wastes
they produce are used in fermentation to help us overcome environmental pollution
enhance the flavour and shelf life of food. worries.
• Biotechnology has an important function • Biomass energy has become more important
to play in the food business. Toxins and in every nation.
antinutritional substances naturally found in Bioremediation
food may be reduced or eliminated by the use • The Bioremediation process is the process of
of antimicrobials, bacteriophage prevention, converting hazardous wastes into nontoxic
and the generation of antimicrobial effects by-products.
to eradicate undesired microbes that make • This method is most often utilised for any
food hazardous. kind of technology clean-up that involves
• Biotechnology has a significant impact on natural microorganisms.
protein engineering as well. Microorganisms
Bio-transformation
are grown in tanks, ponds, and other habitats
• When a complex chemical is transformed
to produce enzymes that are useful to the
into a simple non-toxic component in
microorganisms.
the environment’s biology, the term
• About a third of the world’s food supply is
“biotransformation” is used.
made up of fermented foods. Food additives,
• Non-toxic bi-products may be made from
preservatives, and microbial cultures may
dangerous substances by using them in
all be produced by fermentation.
manufacturing.
o Some examples of fermented foods are
cheese, idli, dosa, buttermilk, etc.
Benefits
Applications of environmental biotechnology
• It contributes to maintaining our
Bio-marker
environment safe and clean for future
• It aids in determining the extent of the
generations to enjoy. It aids the
harm or hazardous exposure, as well as the
adaptation of animals and engineers to
pollution impact.
environmental changes.
• Biomarkers, sometimes referred to as
• With its help, we may reduce our
biological markers are utilised to establish
dependence on resource-depleting
a link between oils and their origins.
substances while also protecting our
Bio-energy natural environment from the harm
• Bioenergy is the utilisation of hydrogen, they cause. As civilisation progresses,
biomass, fuels, and biogas in combination. we should strive to both preserve and
It has uses in the industrial, residential, and enrich our natural surroundings.
space sectors.
• It also aids in the elimination of
• The need for clean energy from these
dangerous contaminants. Finding
sources, as well as other clean energy
solutions to transform garbage into
sources, is critical.
reusable items is useful for scientists
and conservationists.

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