Resource poorness in mobile computing refers to the limitations of mobile devices compared to traditional

computers, including constraints on processing power, memory, storage, and battery life, which necessitate careful
resource management and optimization.
bandwidth : the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network connection in a given time
period. It's often measured in bits per second (bps) or its multiples (Mbps, Gbps) and determines how quickly data
can be downloaded or uploaded.

Cellular architecture Cellular architecture is constituted of the following –

A network of cells each with a base station.

 A packet switched network for communication between the base stations and mobile
switching centers.
 The public switched telephone network to connect subscribers to the wider telephony
network

In all cellular systems, land area is divided into a number of cells each with its radio service.
In AMPS the area is large which in digital services, the area is much [Link]
cells are hexagonal in [Link] cell uses a frequency range that is not used by its
adjacent cells. However frequencies may be reused in non-adjacent [Link] the centre of
each cell is a base station through which mobile phones and other mobile devices transmit
data and voice.

A mobile switching centre (MSC) is a network switching subsystem of a cellular phone

system. It is also called mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). All base stations are
connected to an MSC.

The functions of MSC are –

Call set-up and release.

 Routing of calls and messages sent via SMS.
 Managing conference calls and calls on hold.
 Fax services.
 Billing
 Interfacing with other networks like public switched telephone network (PSTN) and
Internet.
Co-Channel Interference
Co-channel cells are those cells that use the same frequency in a given coverage area. Interference
from these cells is called co-channel interference. In co-channel interference, the cells are clustered as
close together as possible to reduce the co-channel interface and provide sufficient isolation.
An example of co-channel interference is when a radio transmitter is operating on the same frequency.

The reasons behind Co-channel interference are: Bad

weather condition , Poor frequency planning

Frequency reuse : is the technique of using the same radio frequencies across several cell sites
in a cellular network. The cells are organized so that the same frequencies can be reused in non-
adjacent cells, which leads to reducing interference and increasing spectrum efficiency.

Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing a cell into smaller cells each with its own Base Station. On
splitting, new cells with smaller radius are added called microcells. Each new cell created is
independent and has reduced antenna height and transmitter power. The creation of new smaller cells
increases the capacity of the system as a whole. Cell Splitting increases the frequency reuse factor. A
higher frequency reuse factor increases the capacity of the cellular system in Cell Splitting.
Advantages
 Increases the capacity of the channel considerably.
 Enhances dependability of cellular networks.
 Increases the frequency reuse factor.
 Increases signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.
  Reduces interference.
Disadvantages
 For each individual cell, an individual base station is required so a huge number of base stations
are needed in this process.
 Handoff occurs frequently.
 Assigning channels is difficult

1G (1st Generation):

 First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.

 It used analog signals.

 It used an FDD scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.

 The coverage area was small.

 No roaming support between various operators.

 Low sound quality.

 Speed:- 2.4 kbps.

Drawbacks of 1G Technology
 Only the voice can be transmitted in 1G and its quality is very low.
 Mobile Phones cannot have a long life in battery usage and are very bigger which is very
difficult to carry.

2G (2nd Generation) :

 Shifted from analog to digital.

 It supported voice and SMS both.

 Supported all 4 sectors of the wireless industry namely Digital cellular, Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,

 Moderate mobile data service.

 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.

 Speed:- 64 kbps.
 Drawbacks of 2G Technology
 It needs strong network coverage for data transmission.
 Even though it helps in sending messages, it cannot handle videos for transmission.

3G (3rd Generation) :

 The Internet system was improved.

 Better system and capacity.

 Offers high-speed wireless internet.

 The connection used was UMTS and WCMA.

 Speed:- 2mbps.

Drawbacks of 3G Technology
 The power consumption of using 3G technology is high.
 It provides a wider capacity for data transmission at a faster speed.
 The time taken to download via 3G is faster and more expensive to buy.

4G (4th Generation) :

 IP-based protocols.

 LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.

 Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.

 Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with reasonable QoS.

 High usability.

 Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.

 HD Quality Streaming.

 Speed:-100mbps.

Drawbacks of 4G technology
 It provides costlier hardware and infrastructure setup.
 Due to the high data rate speed, the battery usage is less.
5G (5th Generation): It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about 5G.
 Higher data rates.

 Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,

 Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.

 Massive network capacity.

 It is 30 times faster than 4G.

 There would be more flexibility in the network.

Figure – FDMA

Figure – TDMA
 Figure – CDMA

In the above figure, there are 4 stations marked as 1, 2, 3 and 4. Data assigned with respective stations
as d1, d2, d3 and d4 and the code assigned with respective stations as c1, c2, c3 and c4.

### FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

- **What it is**: Divides the bandwidth into frequency bands. Each station gets a fixed band to transmit
data continuously.

- **Advantages**:

- Simple setup and hardware.

- Good for small user groups.

- Reduces interference and increases capacity.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Only works with analog signals.

- Limited flexibility and high traffic capacity.

- Requires strict RF filters, increasing costs.

### TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

- **What it is**: Divides the channel into time slots. Each station transmits data only during its allocated
slot.

- **Advantages**:

- Handles both data and voice communication.

 - Extends battery life by transmitting only part of the time.

- Supports various services like SMS, video conferencing, etc.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Complex frequency/slot allocation.

- Requires synchronization and equalization for high data rates.

- Network planning is complex and resource-intensive.

### CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

- **What it is**: Allows all stations to transmit simultaneously over the entire frequency using unique
codes to separate transmissions.

- **Advantages**:

- High spectral capacity, supporting many users.

- No need for synchronization.

- Secure transmission and better communication quality.

- **Disadvantages**:

- Performance drops as the number of users increases.

- Requires time synchronization.

- Equipment is more expensive due to complexity.

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

A 2G digital cellular standard developed by ETSI, replacing 1G networks. It is widely used worldwide and
combines FDMA and TDMA technologies. Uses four frequency bands: 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and
1900 MHz. Converts and compresses data, sending it in time slots alongside other user data streams.

Features of GSM
 Supports international roaming
 Clear voice clarity
 Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
 Spectral / frequency efficiency
 Low powered handheld devices.
 Ease of accessing network
 International ISDN compatibility.
 Low service cost.
 New features and services.
Applications of GSM
 Mobile Telephony
 VoIP Integration
 SMS (Short Message Service)
 Mobile Banking
 Smart Home Systems
 Surveillance Systems
 Alarm System
 Cell Broadcasting
Advantages of GSM
 Compatibility
 Security
 Efficient use of bandwidth
 Roaming
 Wide range of features
Disadvantages of GSM
 Limited coverage
 Network congestion.
 Security vulnerabilities such as eavesdropping and spoofing.
 relatively slow data transfer
 limited capacity for handling large volumes of data


4G LTE and introduction to 5g

 LTE:
Stands for "Long-Term Evolution," a technology that builds upon 3G networks to offer significant
improvements in speed and capacity.
 4G:
Refers to the fourth generation of mobile network technology, offering faster data speeds and lower latency
compared to its predecessors.
 4G LTE was introduced as the standard for mobile broadband after 3G. It brought major
improvements in speeds and latency, giving us the ability to stream videos and use data-heavy
apps. 4G LTE networks offer download speeds of around 100 Mbps and can reach up to 1
Gbps in ideal conditions.
 5G networks, on the other hand, take things to a whole new level. While LTE and 5G share
some of the same infrastructure, 5G is designed to handle far more devices with speeds up to
20 Gbps. That’s nearly 20 times faster than 4G LTE, and with 5G, you’re looking at latency as
low as 1 millisecond, compared to 30-70 ms for 4G. These improvements mean you can
download an HD movie in seconds or experience virtually no lag during real-time activities like
online gaming or video conferencing.
 Speed

 4G LTE provides speeds of around 100 Mbps in everyday use, which is more than enough for streaming,
downloading large files, and playing most online games.
 5G technology blows these speeds out of the water. With 5G, you can achieve speeds of up to 20
Gbps under optimal conditions. Even in real-world settings, 5G networks still consistently outperform 4G
LTE by delivering speeds that are 10 to 100 times faster.

Latency

4G LTE networks typically deliver latency between 30 and 70 milliseconds—fast enough for most
mobile applications but still noticeable when you’re doing things like gaming or video chatting.
 5G’s latency can drop as low as 1 millisecond. This near-instant responsiveness will be crucial for
applications like autonomous vehicles, real-time data processing in smart cities, and remote surgery.

Capacity

4G LTE can handle a lot, but 5G is built to support many more devices. In a 5G network, you can have
over a million devices per square kilometer connected simultaneously, thanks to technologies like small
cells and massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output). This is a massive boost over previous
generations of mobile networks, making 5G ideal for environments with high device density—think smart
cities or massive sporting events.