II

INTRODUCTION TO UNIVERSAL
ACCESSIBILITY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In web designing, the concept of accessibility is of prime importance for

persons with disabilities. The National Informatics Centre (NIC), Government
of India has issued Guidelines for Indian Government websites (GIGW)
([Link] which includes the accessibility norms for websites
as an important component. However, before we proceed further in explaining
the accessibility norms for-web designing, it is important for you to understand
the terms disability, accessibility, types of disabilities, types of barriers and
barrier free design especially for website.

4.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you will be able to :

• explain the concept of Accessibility specifically web accessibility,
• describe the types 0f disabilities
• identify the types of barriers
• use the Universal design while web designing.

4.3 WHAT IS DISABILITY?

- A disability may be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional,

developmental or some combination of these. A disability may be present from
birth, or occur during a person's lifetime. Disability is an umbrella term/a
broader term covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation
restrictions.
 Introduction to Universal Accessibility :: 87

4.4 TYPES OF DISABILITIES

If you think quietly,you will feel that, we are allphysicallydisabled at some time in
our [Link] individual,a person with a broken leg, a parent with a pram, an elderly
person, etc. are all disabled in one way or another.

The two categories of disabilities are: One is Mental Disabilities - related to the
brain and the second is related to Physical Disabilities.

4.4.1 Mental Disabilities - Related to the Brain

• Mentally Challenged/Mental Sub-normality / Mental Retardation (MR)

• Cerebral Palsy (CP)
• Autism
• Learning Disability(LD)

~ Mentally Challenged/Mental Sub-normality/Mental Retardation

(MR)
Mentally challenged means a condition of incomplete development of mind
of a person that is characterized by 'sub-normality of intelligence'.

~ Cerebral Palsy (CP)

Cerebral Palsy (CP) is the name given to a group of conditions characterized

by brain damage that produces a disorder of movement or posture.

These 'individuals' have multiple handicaps, hearing impairments, speech

defects, epilepsy, etc. These individuals may have difficulty with fine motor
tasks, such as writing or cutting with scissors; experience trouble with
maintaining balance and walking; or be affected by involuntary movements,
such as uncontrollable writhing motion of the hands or drooling.

~ Autism

It affects in the areas of communication, socialization, cognition, imagination

- and intuitive thought ofthe individuaL Autistic individuals can hear, see and feel,
yet have difficulty in understanding and expressing what their senses tell them
indicating t hat they suffer from learning difficulties. Skillsthat a normal individuals
picks up naturally have to be TAUGHT to individuals with autism

Autism is an information processing disorder for which the causes are not known.
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But it is not a disease an individual can catch, nor it is something one can cause or
create.

~ Learning Disability (LD)

Learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in understanding or in using a language,
spoken or written, which may manifest in an imperfect ability to listen,
think, read, write, spell or do mathematical calculations.

There are different kinds of learning disabilities.

• Dyslexia - Reading disorders.

• Dysgraphia - Disorders of written expression. Extremely poor

handwriting or the inability to perform the motor movements required
for handwriting.

• Dyscalculia - Mathematical disabilities.

4.4.2 Physical Disabilities - Related to Body and

Sensory Functions

• Orthopaedic ally Handicapped! Locomotor Disabilities

• Visual Impairment

• Hearing Impairment

The above mentioned disabilities are the major disabilities.

~ Orthopaedically Handicapped/ Locomotor Disabilities

In orthopedically/ locomotors disabilities polio victims, accident victims
(where limbs and trunk have been affected) and individuals who have
congenital physical handicaps are included. The mobility of an individual
gets affected in orthopedically/ locomotors [Link] mobilityof an individual
with disability can be greatly improved by using various aids, appliances and
equipments. These equipments also help such learners in accessing the web.

» Visual Impairment

A person whose vision is affected is referred to as visually impaired. When our

vision is impaired, 60 to 70% of inputs from the outside world are affected.

There are different causes for blindness like diseases ofthe eye and its nerves.
Blindness can also result from damage to that part of the brain which interprets the

J
 Introduction to Universal Accessibility :: 89

nerve sensations sent from the eye.

> Hearing Impairment

Hearing loss can be of different degrees varying from total deafuess to hard of
hearing.

INTEXT QUESTION 4.1

1. What are the different types of mental disabilities?

2. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Disability is either----------or -------

(ii) Dyslexia is a kind of disability.

(iii) Individuals suffering from Cerebral Palsy are also referred to as -
---------- individuals.

4.5 TYPES OF BARRIERS

Barriers are obstacles that make it difficult sometimes impossible for people
with disabilities to do the things most of us do it at case.

When we think ofbarriers to accessibility, most of us think of physical barriers

like a person who uses a wheelchair not being able to enter a public building
because there is no ramp.

The fact is there are many kinds of barriers. Some are visible. Many are
invisible.

4.5.1 Information and communications Technology

barriers:

Such type of barriers are also very common and such barriers happen when a
person can't easily understand information or when a technology can not be
modified to support various assistive devices. The following are examples
of such ICT barriers:

• Print is too small to read.

-, • Websites that can't be accessed by people who are not able to use a mouse.

• Signs that are not clear or easily understood.

• A website that doesn't support screen-reading software or Large print option

large text option or contrast scheme.
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In modern societies with developed technologies, access to information and

communication is a basic prerequisite for all areas of living and working.
However, many means of communication, such as telephone, radio and
television are not accessible for persons with impaired hearing, just as many
information and services are not accessible for persons of impaired sight. The
majority of information prepared for the public in print is not accessible to
persons who are blind or with impaired vision because they are not printed in
large fonts or in Braille, or they don't have an audio version. Communication
at all levels presents people with impaired hearing with a huge problem due
to lack of devices for voice synchronisation or sign language interpreters.

Due to all these, a huge number of persons with disabilities suffer from
discrimination in the field of communication and access to information.
However, with the development of technology and software for converting
text into speech and vice versa, there is certainly technological empowerment
of certain categories of persons with disabilities.

4.5.2 Attitudinal barriers:

The attitudinal barriers are detrimental for any knowledge society. Such
barriers are those that discriminate against people with disabilities. For
example:

• thinking that people with disabilities are inferior

• assuming that a persons with disabilities need not have access to

information.

4.5.3 Barrier Free Design

In today's Internet era, the web is an increasingly important resource in many

aspects oflife: education, employment, government, commerce, health care,
recreation, and more. It is essential that the website you are planning to develop
be accessible in order to provide equal access and equal opportunity to
people with disabilities. An accessible web can also help people with
disabilities to be more independent participate actively in the society. The web
offers the possibility of unprecedented access to information and
interaction for many people with disabilities. That is, the accessibility barriers
to print, audio, and visual media can be much more easily overcome through
barrier free web technologies.

Another important consideration for organisations is that web accessibility

is required by laws and policies in some cases. The organisations are required
-
to follow the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) while designing and
developing a website. These guidelinesare considered as the international standard
for Web accessibility.
 Introduction to Universal Accessibility :: 91

4.6 WHAT IS ACCESSIBILITY?

4.6.1 Accessibility

Accessibility is the degree to which a product, device, service, or environment is

available to as many people as possible. Accessibility can be viewed as the "ability
to access" and benefit from some system or entity. The concept of Accessibility
often focuses for people with disabilities or special needs and their right of access,
enabling the use of assistive technology.

Accessibility is strongly related to universal design when the approach involves

"direct access." This is about making things accessible to aUpeople (whether they
have a disability or not). An alternative is to provide "indirect access" by using
person's assistive technology to achieve access (for example, computer screen
readers).

4.6.2 Web accessibility

Web accessibility means that people with disabilities can also perceive, understand,
navigate, and interact with the Web, and that they can contribute to the Web. It
encompasses aUdisabilities that affect access to the Web, including visual, auditory,
physical, speech, cognitive, and neurological disabilities.

When websites are correctly designed, developed and edited, all users can have
equal access to information and functionality. For example, when a site is coded
with semantically meaningful HTML, with textual equivalents provided for images
and with links named meaningfully, this helps blind users using text-to-speech
software or text-to-Braille hardware. When text and images are large or
enlargeable, it is easier for users with low vision to read and understand the content.
When links are underlined (or otherwise differentiated) as well as colored, this
ensures that color blind users will be able to notice them. When clickable link
areas are large, this helps users who cannot control a mouse with precision.
When pages are coded so that users can navigate by means of the keyboard alone,
this helps users who cannot use a mouse due to locomotor problem. When videos
are having text captioned or a sign language version is available, deaf and hard-
of-hearing users can understand the video. When the websites are correctly built
and maintained, all of these users can be accommodated without decreasing the
usability ofthe website for non-disabled users.

4.6.3 Accessibility Area

- The following are the dimensions for the persons with disability that you need to
address while designing or developing accessible websites:

• Visual: VISual impairments including blindness various common types oflow

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vision and poor eyesight, various types of color blindness;

• LocomotorlMobility: difficulty or inabilityto use the hands, loss of muscle

control, etc., due to conditions such as Parkinson's Disease, muscular
dystrophy, cerebral palsy, stroke;
• Auditory: Deafuess or hearingimpairments,includingindividualswho are hard
ofhearing;

• Seizures: Photo epileptic seizures caused by visual strobe or flashingeffects.

• Cognitive/Intellectual: Developmental disabilities, learning

disabilities (dyslexia), and cognitive disabilities of various origins. !
4.6.4 Accessibility Guidelines

The Website should be designed and developed in such way that it should be
accessible by all people, whatever may be their hardware, software, language,
culture, location, or physical or mental ability. When the web meets this goal,
it is accessible to people with a diverse range of hearing, movement, sight,
and cognitive ability.

Thus the impact of disability is radically changed on the Web because

the Web removes barriers to communication and interaction that many
people face in the physical world. When websites, web technologies, or web
tools are badly designed, they can create barriers that exclude people from
using the web.

It is essential that the web be accessible in order to provide equal access and
equal opportunity to people with diverse abilities.

Examples of Web Accessibility

There are many sites which are developed with accessibility barriers that make
it difficult or impossible for some people to use them for example an image
is inserted or displayed in the Website. The image information is inaccessible
as image can't be read by the people who cannot see, as well as the screen
reader does not read the image and it becomes inaccessible for the person with
disability.

-
 Introduction to Universal Accessibility:: 93

Fig. 4.1: Picture for ALT text

To overcome the problem Alternative Text can be provided that reads aloud the
information on a page, including the alt text for the visual image Below are just a
few examples for alternative text for images

<img src="images/[Link]" alt="Group 7:Student giving examination"

width="357" height="185" />

Alt text is the classic example. Images should include equivalent alternative
text in the markup/code.

If alternate text isn't provided for images, the image information is

inaccessible. When equivalent alt text is provided, the information is available
to everyone including blind, or those who turned off images on their mobile
phone to lower bandwidth charges.

Keyboard Input

Some people cannot use a mouse, including many older users with limited
fine motor control. An accessible website does not rely on the mouse; it
provides all functionality via a keyboard, then people with disabilities can
use assistive technologies that mimic the keyboard, such as speech input.

Text Transcript

Just as images are not available to people who can not see, audio files are not
available to people who can not hear. Providing a text transcript makes the
audio information accessible to people who are deaf or hard of hearing, as
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well as to search engines and other technologies that can not hear. It's easy and
relatively inexpensive for website developers to provide transcripts for podcasts
and audio files.

Accessibility is essential for developers and organizations that want to

create high quality web sites and web tools, and not exclude people from
using their products and services.

4.7 WEB CONTENT ACCESSIBILITY GUIDELINES (WCAG)

Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 covers a wide range of

recommendations for making Web content more accessible. Following these
guidelines will make content accessible to a wider range of people with
disabilities, including blindness and low vision, deafuess and hearing loss,
learning disabilities, cognitive limitations, limited movement, speech
disabilities, photosensitivity and combinations of these. Following these
guidelines will also often make Web content more usable to. users in general.

WCAG 2.0 success criteria are written as testable statements that are not
technology-specific. WCAG 2.0 succeeds Web Content Accessibility
Guidelines 1.0 [WCAG 10], which was published as a W3C Recommendation
May 1999. Although it is possible to conform either to WCAG 1.0 or to
WCAG 2.0 (or both), the W3C recommends that new and updated content
use WCAG 2.0. The W3C also recommends that Web accessibility policies
reference WCAG 2.0.

Understanding the Four Principles and 12 Guidelines of Web

Accessibility

The guidelines and success criteria for any website are organized around the
following four principles of web accessibility, which lay the foundation
necessary for anyone to access and use Web content. The four principles of
accessibility is also known by the acronym POUR that means the content of
your website must be Perceivable, Operable, Understandable andRobust.
Anyone who wants to use the web must have content that is:

4.7.1 Perceivable

Information and user interface components must be presentable to users in

ways they can perceive. This means that users must be able to perceive the
information being presented. It can not be invisible to all of their senses. Under
Perceivable the following 4 guidelines has to be adhered :- ---

• Provide text alternatives for any non-text content so that it can be changed
into other forms people need, such as large print, braille, speech, symbols
or simpler language.
 Introduction to Universal Accessibility :: 95

• Provide alternatives for time-based media.

• Create content that can be presented in different ways (for example simpler
layout) without losing information or structure.

• Make it easier for users to see and hear content (include separating foreground
from background).

4.7.20p·erable

User interface components and navigation must be operable. This means that users
must be able to operate the interface. The interface cannot require any such
interaction that a user cannot perform. Under Operable the following 4 guidelines
has to be adhered:-

• Make all functionality available from a keyboard.

• Provide users enough time to read and use content.

• Do not design content in a way that is known to cause seizures.

• Provide ways to help users navigate, find content, and determine where they
are available.

4.7.3 Understandable

Information and the operation of user interface must be understandable. This means
that users must be able to understand the information as well as the operation of
the user interface. The content or operation cannot be beyond their understanding.
The following guidelines has to be taken care under understandable are :-

• Make text content readable and understandable.

• Make web pages appear and operate in predictable ways.

• Help users to avoid and correct mistakes.

4.7.4 Robust

Content must be robust enough that it can be interpreted reliably by a wide variety
of user agents, including assistive technologies. This means that users must be able
to access the content as technologies advance.

The following guideline has to be taken care of

- • Maximize compatibility with current and future user agents, includingassistive

technologies.

If any one of the guideline is not followed then users with disabilities will
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not be able to use the web.

4.8 ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR WEB BROWSING

Many times you willnotice that persons with disabilityuse various technologies for
browsing the web which are called Assistive Technologies. Some of these
assistive technologies which enable and assist them in web browsing are as under:

Screen reader: It is a software, which can read out, using synthesized speech,
either selected elements of what is being displayed on the monitor (helpful
for users with reading or learning difficulties), or which can read out everything
that is happening on the computer (used by blind and visually impaired users).

Braille terminals; It consists of a Refreshable Braille display which renders

text as Braille characters and either a QWERTY or Braille keyboard.

Screen magnification: It is software, which enlarges what is displayed on

the computer monitor, making it easier to read for visually impaired users.

Speech recognition: It is software that can accept spoken commands to the

computer, or turn dictation into grammatically correct text - useful for those
who have difficulty using a mouse or a keyboard.

Keyboard overlays: It makes typing easier and more accurate for those who
have motor control difficulties.

4.9 MAKING YOUR WEBSITE ACCESSIBLE

Making a Website accessible can be simple or complex, depending on many

factors such as the type of content, the size and complexity of the site, and
the development tools and environment. Many accessibility features are easily
implemented ifthey are planned from the beginning of Web site development
or redesign. Fixing inaccessible Web sites can require significant effort,
especially sites that were not originally "coded" properly with
standard XHTML markup, and sites with certain types of content such as
multimedia.

4.9.1 Web Accessibility Features

There are various norms for the accessibility features. The following are the
important accessibility features you must incorporate while designing or
developing your website:

• Alternate description for Images & AudioNideo

• Display settings

• Ease of navigation
 Introduction to Universal Accessibility :: 97

• Content readability & structure

• Keyboard support

• Forms

~ Alternate description for images & Audio/Video content

Alternate Text: Brief description of an image is required to be provided for

users with visual disability. If you are using a browser that supports only text
or have turned off the image display, you can still know what the image is all
about by reading the alternate text in absence of an image. In addition, some
browsers display the alternate text in the form of a too 1tip when the user moves
the mouse pointer over the image.

~ Display settings

Text size: The provision for changing the size of the text on theweb pages
should be incorporated either through the browser or you may provide the
text sizing icons present at the top of each page for changing the text size by
clicking on these icons. This helps the learners with low vision.

I Text Size:

Contrast schemes: The website should provide different contrast schemes

to enable users with visual impairments, such as low vision and color blindness
. '
as well as users with learning impairments to view the web page information
with ease. Different contrast schemes include Black on White.

I Contrast Scheme:

~ Ease of Navigation

Skip to Main Content: Quick access to the core content ofthe page must be
provided for keyboard and screen reader users without requiring them to go

- through repetitive navigation links.

Descriptive Link Text: Brief description of a link needs to be provided using

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clear and descriptive phrases instead of just using words such as 'Read more' and
'Click here' as link text. Further, if a link opens a website in a new window, the
description must specify the same.

Consistent Navigation Mechanism: Consistent means of navigation and style

of presentation throughout the website should be incorporated.

~ Content Readability & Structure

Icons: Text needs to be supplemented with icons to enable users with learning
disabilities understand the information easily. Icons are required to be provided
along with text labels for key navigation options as well as important features,
such as print, email, text size etc.

Identification of file type and file size: Information about alternate file types,
such as PDF, documents, spreadsheet along with the file size must be provided
within the link text to help users identify the same. In addition, icons for
different file types can also be provided with the links. This helps users in
deciding whether they wish to access the link.

Table Headers: The table headings should be marked and associated with
their corresponding cells in each row. This enables a screen reader to read
out the column and row header of any cell for the user.

Table caption and summary: Table captions are specified that act as labels,
which indicate what data is provided in the table. In addition summary is
specified to provide description for screen reader users to enable th~m
understand the table information easily.

Headings: The Web page content should be organized using appropriate

headings and subheadings that provide a readable structure. HI indicates the
main heading, whereas H2 indicates a subheading. In addition, wherever
required appropriate headings should be provided to improve readability.

Page titles: An appropriate name for each web page must be specified which
helps users especially screen reader users to understand the page content easily.

Large Print: Option oflarge print should be provided in order to help users
with low vision and senior citizens to print the web page with large font size.
-
~ Keyboard Support
 ••

Introduction to Universal Accessibility :: 99

Keyboard support for drop-down menus: Drop-down menus are used to display
the top navigation options across the website. For this you need to provide
keyboard access. Tab Key and Enter Key along with up and down arrow keys
are used to navigate the drop-down menu.

Keyboard support for navigating across the website: Interactive elements of

the website, such as links and forms can be browsed using a keyboard by pressing
the Tab or Shift + Tab keys.

~ Forms

Form instructions: Clear and easy to understand instructions should be

provided to help users fill up the form details successfully.

Clear and Unique form labels: Each form field, such as text boxes, radio
button group, check boxes etc should have form labels to help users to identify
the purpose of the field.

Explicit Form Label Association: A label should be linked to its respective

control, such as text box, check box, radio button, and drop-down list. This
enables the assistive technologies to identify the labels for the controls on"a
form.

Descriptive error messages: In case of errors that occur while filling up a

form, users are informed about errors using descriptive messages to help them
to rectify error and complete the form.

4.10 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

In this lesson you have learnt about

• what is accessibility

• types of disabilities - a mental disabilities, physical disabilities

• types ofbarriers and

•
• web content accessibility guidelines.
 ••

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4.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What are the different dimensions of the disabilities that need to be addressed
for web accessibility?

2. What are the four principles of Accessibility? Explain each ofthem

3. Why is it necessary to make your website accessible?

4. How do you incorporate the accessibility in your display setting?

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1. Mentally challengedlMental sub-normality Mental Retardation (MR)

2. (i) Mental or Physical

(n) Learning

(ill) Spastic