MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

I. Learning Objectives:

By the end of the module, the students will be able to:

1. Define and explain the terms that are relevant to ethical thinking;
2. Understand the relationship between Philosophy and Ethics
3. Trace the Historical Development of Ethics in Philosophy
4. Explain the relationship of ethics to other sciences and phases of human
life and
enumerate the importance of the study of ethics.
5. Identify the ethical aspect of human life and the scope of ethical thinking;
6. Evaluate the difficulties that are involved in maintaining certain
commonly-held notions on ethics.

II. Introduction
Man alone of all earthly creatures is a moral being. He endowed with
the great gift of freedom of choice in his actions, yet he is responsible for
his own freely chosen acts, his conduct. He distinguishes between right and
wrong, good and bad in human behavior. He can control his own passions.
He is the master of himself, the sculptor of his own life and destiny. This
moral power in man is the most distinctive features of the human
personality. For MAN is principally and primarily a human person whose
highest faculty is moral power, his willpower, his freedom. Viewed in this
perspective, everything Human has naturally a moral bearing, reference
and relevance. Thus, to be truly human, is to be moral which is the essence
of ethics.

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions of right

and wrong, good and bad, and moral responsibility. It helps us understand
how we should act in different situations and why certain actions are
considered moral or immoral. Ethics is important in our daily lives, guiding
our personal decisions, professional behavior, and interactions with others.

In addition, ethics is the philosophy of life. It delves into the deepest

whys and wherefores of human existence, men’s actions, problems and
destiny. To live well and happy we must know what we are living for. This is
taught to us by ethics, that investigates the meaning and purpose of human
life. Throughout history, philosophers have explored ethical principles to
help define what it means to live a good life. According to Socrates the
unexamined life is not worth living for a man. Plato proclaimed ethics as the
supreme science, the highest in the hierarchy of human values, as it is
Ethics that is concerned with the attainment of life’s greatest Good and

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Goal-- HAPPINESS. We will discuss ethics further in the next topics in this
module.

III. Learning Activities

A. Engage
What pressing concern bothers you at this time? Cite two and discuss the
challenges you have met along the way.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

B. Explore
Watch the video (the link is provided below).
[Link]
Reflect on how the understanding of Philosophy helps in resolving
pressing real life situations similar to the video watched.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

C. Explain
TOPIC 1: Overview of Philosophy to Ethics

Philosophy was coined by Pythagoras from the two Greek words

philia, which means love and sophia, wisdom. Hence, etymologically
speaking, philosophy is defined as the “love of wisdom”. The notion of love
in ancient Greece is understood in many ways, but the Greeks normally
understood philia as a friendly and collegial love. On the other hand,
wisdom, as taught by Plato, is that kind of knowledge which in itself “is
unlimited and which corresponds to the infinite knowledge of God alone”.
However, wisdom is normally understood by the Greeks as the correct
application of knowledge. As a love of wisdom, philosophy therefore urges
the human person to constantly chase for wisdom which demands lifelong
practice and commitment.

Traditionally, philosophy is defined as a science that studies all

things in their ultimate causes, reason and principles through the
aid of human reason alone. Thus, philosophy covers a wide range, if not
all fields, of human inquiry. As a science that studies everything, philosophy
seeks to know the root cause of all that exists and the underlying principles

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that govern reality. In other words, philosophy is concerned with the
reasons and principles that account for everything.

Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence,

knowledge, reality, morality, and human thought. It seeks to understand the
nature of the world, our place in it, and how we should live.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy is divided into several key branches:

1. Metaphysics – is often described as the study of the most basic and

general features of reality. It’s a field that goes beyond the physical world
we can observe with our senses, trying to answer questions about
existence, time, space, causality, and the nature of mind and matter. This
table provides an overview of the main themes and issues in metaphysics,
highlighting its significance in philosophical inquiry.
Category About Metaphysics
Definition The study of what is beyond the physical, examining
concepts such as being, existence, and the nature of
objects.
Key – What is the nature of reality?
Questions – What exists?
– What is the relationship between mind and matter?
– Do abstract concepts like numbers exist?
– What is time and space
Key – Ontology: The study of being and existence.
Concepts – Identity and Change: Questions about what it
means for something to remain the same over time.
– Causality: Examining cause and effect relationships.
– Possibility and Necessity: Exploring what could
exist versus what must exist.
Relevance – Science: Understanding the implications of scientific
Today discoveries on concepts of reality.
—Philosophy of Mind: Exploring consciousness and
its relation to the physical world.
– Ethics: Considering the metaphysical underpinnings of
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– Technology: Addressing questions about virtual
realities and their ontological status.
2. Epistemology – is the study of knowledge—how we know what we know. It
looks at questions like: How do we gain knowledge? What makes a belief justified?
And what is truth? The term comes from Greek, where “epistēmē” means
knowledge and “logos” means reason. It’s a key area in philosophy that helps us
understand the foundations of our beliefs and understanding.

Category About Epistemology

Definition The study of knowledge—how we know what we know,
including questions about its acquisition, justification, and
truth.
Key – What is the nature of reality?
Questions – What exists?
– What is the relationship between mind and matter?
– Do abstract concepts like numbers exist?
– What is time and space
Key – Ontology: The study of being and existence.
Concepts – Identity and Change: Questions about what it
means for something to remain the same over time.
– Causality: Examining cause and effect relationships.
– Possibility and Necessity: Exploring what could
exist versus what must exist.
Relevance – Science: Understanding the implications of scientific
Today discoveries on concepts of reality.
—Philosophy of Mind: Exploring consciousness and
its relation to the physical world.
– Ethics: Considering the metaphysical underpinnings of
moral values.
– Technology: Addressing questions about virtual
realities and their ontological status.

3. Logic - We use this word in our commonplace conversations, so we are

all aptly familiar with it. People constantly ask each other, “Where is the
logic behind this or that?”. People even acknowledge a good thought or act
by calling it logically correct. Hence, the question arises, what does the
Science of logic have to do with Philosophy? In logic, we usually construct
two sentences which are called premises, and they are used to conclude.
This sort of logic is called syllogism, pioneered by Aristotle.

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 Category About Logic
Definition A branch of philosophy that examines the structure of
arguments, the nature of propositions, and the rules
4.
governing logical reasoning.

Key – What constitutes a valid argument?

Questions
– How do we differentiate between sound and unsound
reasoning?
– What are the limits of logical systems?
– How do language and logic intersect?
– What is the role of formal and informal logic?

Key The study of reasoning and argumentation focuses on the

Concepts
principles of valid inference and demonstration.

Relevance – Computer Science: Foundations of programming and

Today
algorithms.
– Artificial Intelligence: Logical reasoning in machine
learning and decision-making.
– Linguistics: Understanding language structure and
semantics.
– Debate and Rhetoric: Enhancing critical thinking
and
persuasive communication.

Axiology - Also referred to as the theory of value, Axiology explores the

nature of value and its metaphysical aspects. Value Theory is often
interchangeably used with Axiology and this branch of Philosophy peruses
upon the value of goodness. To put it simply, Axiology looks at the concept
of value in terms of its philosophical terms and argues questions about
nature and what actually is valued.

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 Category About Axiology
Definition The study of what is good, valuable, and worthy, exploring
the nature of values and value judgments.

Key – What constitutes a good life?

Questions
– How do we determine what is valuable?
– Are values objective or subjective?
– What is the relationship between ethics and aesthetics?
– How do cultural contexts influence values?

Key – Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value: Differentiating

Concepts between
5.
values inherent to something versus those derived
from
external factors.
– Ethical Subjectivism: The view that moral
values are
based on individual preferences.
– Utilitarianism: The idea that the best action is
the one
that maximizes overall happiness.
– Aesthetic Value: Exploring what is considered
beautiful or aesthetically pleasing.

Relevance – Social Justice: Examining values related to equality

Today and rights.
– Environmental Ethics: Assessing the value of
nature and ecological concerns.
– Business Ethics: Understanding values guiding
corporate responsibility.
– Education: Discussing the values that shape
educational practices and curricula.

Political Philosophy - The origin of the word “politics” can be traced back
to ancient Greek times when the term “polis” was used to refer to city-
states and their associated matters. These matters included governance,
laws, and traditions. Gradually, the subject area was widened to include the
study of power and the process of analysis or decision-making across
various institutions and social platforms. Combining the two fields of Politics
and Philosophy, Political Philosophy studies political government, laws,
liberty, justice, rights, authority, political states and systems, ethics,and

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more. It explores the concepts of why we need governments, the role
played by governments, and what are its constituents, amongst others.
Category About Political Philosophy
Definition A branch of philosophy that examines concepts and
principles underlying political systems and behaviors.

Key – What is the nature of justice?

Questions
– What is the ideal form of government?
– What are individual rights and liberties?
6.
– How should power and authority be distributed?
– What is the role of citizens in a democracy?

Key – Social Contract: The idea that individuals consent to

Concepts form a government for mutual protection and benefit.
– Liberty: The state of being free within society from
oppressive restrictions.
– Justice: The pursuit of fairness and equality in society.
– Power and Authority: The dynamics of how power is
acquired, exercised, and justified

Relevance – Human Rights: Addressing issues of freedom and

Today
equality.
– Political Activism: Understanding movements for
social change.
– Governance: Evaluating democratic systems and
political representation.
– Global Politics: Exploring the impact of international
relations on domestic policies.

Aesthetics - Every person defines beauty as per his or her own

perspectives. This philosophical subject is wholly devoted to defining the
different aspects of beauty, even its contours. How do we find something
beautiful? Is beauty always subjective or can it be objective too? Can
everyone find a thing beautiful? It also examines individual tastes and
attempts to provide answers about these things in a scientific manner.
Aesthetic Philosophy’s primary topic of investigation is beauty and art. It is
often debated inside its classrooms. It also talks about performing arts like
music.

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 Category About Aesthetics
Definition A branch of philosophy that examines the nature of beauty,
art, and the value of aesthetic experiences.
7.
Ethics Key – What is beauty? - is
the Questions
– How do we define art?
study of
what – What role do emotions play in aesthetic appreciation? is
right – Are aesthetic judgments objective or subjective?
and
wrong – How do cultural contexts influence our perceptions of in
beauty?

Key – Beauty: The quality that provides pleasure or

Concepts satisfaction to the senses.
– The Sublime: Aesthetic experiences that evoke awe
or wonder, often related to vastness or grandeur.
– Art for Art’s Sake: The idea that art does not need
to serve a moral or political purpose.
– Aesthetic Experience: The engagement with art or
beauty that elicits emotional responses.

Relevance – Art Criticism: Evaluating contemporary art and its

Today
significance.
– Cultural Studies: Understanding how aesthetics
shape cultural identity.
– Design: Influences on architecture, fashion, and
product
design.
– Media: The impact of visual culture in digital platforms
and social media.

human behavior. It asks important questions about how we should live our
lives and what values we should hold. For example, it explores whether it’s
okay to lie for a good reason, why we should care about people who are
suffering, or if we have a duty to protect the environment. Here’s the table
outlining the key aspects of ethics, a branch of philosophy that examines
moral principles and values guiding human behavior. It explores
fundamental questions about right and wrong, ethical theories, and the
relevance of ethics in various fields today.

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 Category About Ethics
Definition The branch of philosophy concerned with questions of
morality, including what constitutes good or bad actions,
and the basis for ethical judgments

Key – What is the nature of morality?

Questions
– How do we determine what is right or wrong?
– Are moral principles universal or subjective?
– What is the role of reason in ethics?
– How do emotions influence moral decisions?

Key – Consequentialism: The morality of an action is

Concepts
determined by its outcomes.
– Deontology: Morality is based on rules and duties.
– Virtue Ethics: Focuses on character and virtues.
– Moral Relativism: The view that moral judgments are
not absolute but relative to cultures or individuals.

Relevance – Social Justice: Addressing issues of equality and

Today rights.
– Bioethics: Ethical implications of medical practices and
technologies.
– Environmental Ethics: Morality regarding the
treatment of the environment.
– Business Ethics: Ethical standards in business
practices and corporate responsibility

BRIEF HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

The history of philosophy spans thousands of years and has evolved

through various traditions and schools of thought. Here's a brief overview:

1. Ancient Philosophy (c. 600 BCE – 500 CE)

 Pre-Socratic Philosophy (c. 600–400 BCE) – Early thinkers like Thales,
Heraclitus, and Parmenides explored metaphysics, nature, and
existence.
 Classical Greek Philosophy (c. 400–300 BCE) – Socrates introduced
ethical inquiry, Plato developed idealism, and Aristotle established
logic, science, and ethics.
 Hellenistic Philosophy (c. 300 BCE–300 CE) – Schools like Stoicism
(Zeno), Epicureanism (Epicurus), and Skepticism flourished.

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  Roman Philosophy (c. 100 BCE–500 CE) – Thinkers like Cicero, Seneca,
and Marcus Aurelius adapted Greek ideas, emphasizing ethics and
duty.

2. Medieval Philosophy (c. 500–1500)

 Strongly influenced by Christianity, Islamic, and Jewish theology.
 Scholasticism (e.g., Thomas Aquinas) sought to reconcile
Aristotelianism with religious doctrine.
 Avicenna and Averroes helped preserve and expand Greek philosophy
in the Islamic world.

3. Renaissance and Early Modern Philosophy (c. 1500–1800)

 Renaissance Humanism revived classical thought (e.g., Pico della
Mirandola).
 Rationalism (René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz) emphasized reason.
 Empiricism (John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume) focused on
sensory experience.
 Political Philosophy (Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau) explored the nature of government and social contracts.

4. Modern Philosophy (c. 1800–1900)

 German Idealism (Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel)
focused on reason and reality.
 Existentialism (Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche) explored
individualism and meaning.
 Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill) emphasized morality
based on consequences.
 Marxism (Karl Marx) critiqued capitalism and class struggle.

5. Contemporary Philosophy (1900–present)

 Analytic Philosophy (Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein) focused
on language and logic.
 Phenomenology & Existentialism (Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger,
Jean-Paul Sartre) examined consciousness and existence.
 Postmodernism & Deconstruction (Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida)
challenged traditional ideas of truth and meaning.
 Ethics, AI, and Environmental Philosophy are emerging as crucial
modern fields.

Why is Philosophy Important?

Philosophy helps us:

 Think critically and reason logically.

 Question assumptions and seek deeper understanding.
 Make ethical decisions in personal and professional life.
 Understand different perspectives and worldviews.

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Philosophy is not just an academic subject—it is a way of thinking that helps
us explore life’s biggest questions. It encourages curiosity, critical thinking,
and a deeper appreciation for the complexities of existence.

TOPIC 2: The Scope and Meaning of Ethics

Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and
is also described as moral philosophy. The term is derived from the Greek
word ethos which can mean custom, habit, character or disposition. From
this etymological meaning, ethics is taken to mean as a philosophical
science that deals with the morality of human conduct or human acts.
General Ethics is a philosophical inquiry concerning norms of morality,
its
clarification, justification, and application in relation to good life. We derive
from this definition the following elements of general ethics:

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 First, general ethics is a philosophical inquiry. It is based on reason
and not on divine revelation. Meaning, it establishes its claims and
justification through the aid of human reason alone.

Second, it is about an inquiry on moral norms or standard of what is

good and what is evil, what ought to be done and what ought not to be
done, and tries to find out the strengths and weaknesses of moral positions
and the arguments of ethical proponents. The principles in general ethics
will help in resolving moral problems arising in the practice of the
profession.

Third, it is about the formation of moral character that can promote

good life of the individual and of the society as whole.

Ethics is merely concern in laying down the different moral

perspectives. It is necessary to inquire to know the moral justification of an
ethical theory. Since ethics is a branch of philosophy and philosophy is
concerned with reason, we must direct our endeavor in searching for a
reason towards ethical theories’ moral justification. It is a widely held
definition that ethics is the study of the morality of human acts. It is also
significant to study the moral basis why a human act is said to be moral or
immoral. Ethics concerns not only the basis of what is good or bad but also
the basis of our being as well because our moral perspective reflects the
kind of character we have.

The study of ethics aims not only to give students information but also
guide them on things they want to change in themselves. It is not merely
information but transformation of one’s character and giving individual a
moral paradigm in making moral decision. It aims also to widen student’s in
looking of reality.

The Idea of Good

“Good” has been given various meanings and justification by several
philosophers. According to proponents a situation or an action may have
two moral spectrums: the first considered that goodness lies in an action
itself which is the position of the so-called deontologist and the second
considered that goodness lies in the consequences of an action, which is the
position of the so-called consequentialist. Let’s consider the instance when
we were children, parents do usually tell their children not to hit other kids
because according to them hitting or spanking is bad. Hitting is bad, and
that’s it, period. Other parents would rather focus on explaining the
consequences of the action. They would tell their children that hitting or
spanking is bad because the other child gets hurt, physically and
emotionally. When do we say that an action is good?
According to Aristotle, the goodness of an action lies in the action
itself whatever consequences it may occur. For instance, the act of “truth
telling”, whatever consequences it may incur, is good itself. What is

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essential if you do the right things base on your deliberation on what is
good. It is very important to understand this idea of good because there are
situations where some of our actions accrued negative consequences even
though we have good intention in performing an action. Let’s consider this
situation: A teacher defends the school which he works for from his co-
teachers badmouthing and engaging in activities degrading the school’s
integrity. The teacher tells his colleagues not to bite the hand that feed
them. He believes this is the right thing to do- to defend his school, to show
loyalty. However, his colleagues got offended and later resort to being
unfriendly and indifferent to the teacher. They even conspire to make a
sinister move against the teacher. Reflecting on this situation, is the
teacher’s action good because loyalty is good in its nature or it is wrong
because of its consequences? The human good can be achieved through
and by action, especially when it is a good action.

The good for Aristotle is attainable by action. It is not something

beyond the practical life of man. As Plato conceived it, the good lies in the
other realm and possesses independent existence. It is a thing as such. The
problem here is how it is connected to the world, to the practical life of man.
For Aristotle, however, the good is a human act and not an abstract idea.
Aristotle also mentioned the good of a man which can be further
understood in his theory of the Ergon which states, that “So the goodness
and performance of man would seem to reside in whatever is his function”
(Ostwald, 1962). Everything in the universe has a function and because
everything has a function, man has a function as well. There is purpose in
being human. That’s why it is significant to know precisely the proper
function of man and whatever we do that can flourish out ability to act
rationally is good for man.

Value
Is the value of something intrinsic or is something valuable because it
is valued? This is a question regarding values. According to the voluntarist
conception, valuing is the ground value. A thing can only be valuable when
it is valued; therefore, it has no intrinsic value. As a consequence, there are
no other considerations to account on value so long as something is that
being valued is valuable. For instance, studying has no intrinsic value unless
it is valued by an individual. We can observe that there are people
neglecting their studies. Is that because they are lazy or because it is not
valuable for them?
On the contrary, if value is will, choice or desire independent, how can
it be an action guiding? How can it stimulate action if it is not valuable to a
person?
That’s why it is very important to look again at the definition of good
in relation to value.

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 Good is everything that is desirable but we know for a fact that there
are things that we do not value but valued by others. In other words, not
just because a thing is not desirable for me, it does not have value. On the
other hand, the value of something may not be intrinsic but int the state
potentiality which can be actualized and achieved through valuation.

Virtue
Imagine a person being lectured by his teacher on how to drive a
bicycle. After the lecture, do you think the student would have learned
driving a bicycle?

Imagine another student being taught of driving a bicycle with his

teacher holding the bicycle seat while running along with the bicycle. The
student keeps on falling but the teacher never stopped guiding him. Do you
think the student would learn driving?

The same with virtue, it is formed through action, by performing an

action. The student who actually rides a bicycle will most likely learn how to
run a bicycle. Likewise, a person learns how to be generous by performing a
generous act and learns how to be courageous by performing courageous
act.
Virtue is a disposition or character that enables its possessor to
perform a noble or good action according to the mean as determined by
practical wisdom.
1. It is a character realized in an action according to the mean. It is
character formed and integrated in us when we do good actions (eupraxia)
repeatedly (habit), as much as when a bad action is done over and over it
gradually becomes a vice.
2. Virtue enables its possessor to perform a noble or good action. It is
only in having a good character that a person performs a good action
according to the mean. That’s why it is very important that a person is
taught of good during childhood.
3. It is through practical wisdom that a person can become virtuous
because it is through practical wisdom that we may have a clear
understanding of what is good and it is the enabling virtue that put us into
action.
It is a character. For even a vicious person may perform an action the
way it was done by virtuous person. So, an action may vary depending on
the person’s character performing the virtuous action. Therefore, if an
action is done by a person of good character, that action can be called
virtuous action. That’s why it is important that we know that virtue is a
character. It is not a capacity because capacity comes from nature, but
virtue is formed through habit. If virtue comes from nature, there is no way

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to change it. It is not a capacity for even a person may have the capacity to
perform a virtuous action but opt not to do so. It is not a feeling for we
cannot be praised nor blamed for our feelings.
Virtue is a character and a person who has a virtuous character
performs a good action and performs for the sake of performing good
action, not for other reason. For instance, a person may perform a generous
act nut intends other people to see his action. However, to a virtuous
person, what is significant is the performance of good action and not the
reaction of other people towards the action.
Virtue enables its possessor to determine the end and practical
wisdom guides our character to move towards the end. Because even if we
know that our end must be the good, if we are not able to prepare the way
towards it we cannot be virtuous. That’s why Aristotle says, “It is impossible
to be good in the full sense of the word without practical wisdom or to be a
man of practical wisdom without moral excellence or virtue” (Ostwald,
1962). Practical wisdom is not only a guide to our character but it is united
with it.

Different Applied Fields in Ethics

There are different ethical fields wherein the provision of general
ethics can be [Link] is not enough to be acquainted with different ethical
theories without gaining knowledge about their application in actual
situations that we confront in our daily lives. We can come up with the
realization of the significance of the different moral principles into their
application in the setting of the different ethical fields. We can also come up
with the realization of how valuable it is that an individual or groups have
knowledge about moral principles and apply them in performing an action.
1. Bioethics/Biomedical Ethics - concerned with the rightness or
wrongness of procedures that are performed in the practice of medicine and
the provision of health care systems. Let us try to understand this
description of bioethics in the light of this situation.
“Theresa Ann Campo Pearson, an infant known to the public as “Baby
Theresa” was born in Florida in 1992. Baby Theresa had anencephaly, one
of the worst genetic disorders. Anencephalic infants are sometimes referred
to as “babies without brains”, but that is not accurate. Important parts of
the brain --the cerebrum and cerebellum are missing, as is the top of the
skull. The brain stem, is still there, and so the baby can still breathe and
possess a heartbeat. In the United States, most cases of anencephaly are
detected during pregnancy, and the fetus are usually aborted. Of those
aborted, half are still born. About 350 are born alive each year, and then
they usually die within days.

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 Baby Theresa’s story is remarkable only because her parents made an
unusual request. Knowing that their baby would die soon and could never
be conscious, Theresa’s parents volunteered her organs for immediate
transplant. They thought her kidneys, liver, heart, lungs and eyes should go
to other children who could benefit from them. Her physicians agreed.
Thousands of infants need transplants each year, and there are never
enough organs available. But Theresa’s organs were not taken, because
Florida law forbids the removal of organs until the donor is dead. By the
time Baby Theresa died, nine days later, it was too late-her organs
deteriorated too much to be harvested and transplanted.
Baby Theresa’s case was widely debated. Should she have been killed
so that her organs could have been used to save other children? (Rachels &
Racchels, 2012).
2. Environmental Ethics - it covers acceptable or unacceptable
actions affecting the environment (De Castro & De Villa, 2012). As what one
of the green movements’ slogans is saying, “harm to the environment will
bring harm to the people.” So, this particular ethical field promotes the
welfare of human beings by promoting the well-being of the environment
since we are part of it. Here is a simple example of an environmental ethical
concern.
There was a news that the mayor in one of the municipalities was
trying to catch the endangered species Butanding in their seas because
Butandings were eating small fishes in their bodies of water which was
causing loss of income to the townspeople. Are you in favor of the mayor’s
initiative?
What is your moral valuation about the practice of catching sharks
and to get their spin and returning the shark to the sea after?
3. Business Ethics - concerned with what is acceptable and
unacceptable business code of conducts are affecting the business
enterprises. And when speaking of the business enterprise, it includes both
the owner or investor and or the consumer. This field measures and
establishes guidelines for the economic dynamics as a whole, including the
moral aspect of the supply and demand, the benefits-cost-profit ratio, rule
of competition and fair opportunity for the consumers. Let’s also take a look
at the example below.
It is wrongful for a celebrity to endorse a product that may be harmful
to consumers? Is it wrongful if a celebrity endorses a product that he
or she does not use? What about the companies that set up these deals? Do
they have any responsibilities to the celebrities who sign on with them?
(Bredeson, 2012)
4. Legal Ethics - norms of conduct or standards that law
practitioners, such as judges, lawyers, notary public, law makers, must
follow in the practice of the profession.

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Relation of Ethics with Other Sciences
Ethical science is particularly concerned with the study of man and
human conduct and is, therefore, especially related to all those sciences
dealing with the study of human nature and human living.
1. Ethics and Logic. - Logic is the science of right thinking. Ethics is
the science of right living. But right living presupposes right thinking. Doing
follows thinking. To think right often means to do right, as knowledge of
right leads to the doing of right. Both ethics and logic aim at rectitude: the
former aims at right doing; the latter, at right thinking.
2. Ethics and Psychology - Both deal with the study of man, human
nature, and human behavior. There is, however, a basic difference.
Psychology is not interested in the morality of human behavior, unlike
ethics. Psychology studies how man behaves; ethics studies how man ought
to behave. The word “ought” to be emphasized to show the difference:
Ethics is concerned with moral obligation while psychology is not.
3. Ethics is related to Sociology - Ethics deals with the moral order
which includes the social order. Whatever does violence to the social order
does violence also to the natural and the moral order.
Society depends on ethics for its underlying principles: Sociology
deals with human relations in a society, but human relations are based on
proper order and proper order comes only with proper observance of moral
laws and principles which regulate the actions of men in a community.
4. Ethics and Economics - Man is also an economic being because
he has to support himself by earning a living. He has to live by bread
(though he does not live by bread alone). Economics and morality are two
aspects of one and the same human nature.
Economics deals with such topics as wages, labor, production and
distribution of wealth. But will determine the relations between employer
and employee, for instance? This and all other relations in business must be
based on justice and charity which, after all are moral principles. In order
that peace and happiness will prevail in a community, the actions of man
must be governed by the invariable principles of morality.

Morality and Other Phases of Human Life

Life is a “many-splendored thing.” It is a unity of many aspects: the
social, the economic, the moral, the physical, the religious, etc. Since the
rational and the moral are the essential distinguishing characteristics of
man (since these distinguish him from the other animals), it follows that
morality is the basic element of human life and cannot be separated from
the other phases of human activity.

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 Ethics and Education - Education develops the whole man: his
moral, intellectual and physical capacities. Since man, however, is primarily
a rational moral being (endowed with reason and will, which ranks him
above brute creation), the primary objective of education should be the
development of these powers in man, which consists his true perfection.
This recognized in our constitution when it mentions “moral character” as
the first and primary aim of all education. “All schools should develop good
moral character, personal discipline, civic consciousness, etc. Education, a
great educator said, is life; it is con-extensive with life. With greater reason
and emphasis, we can even say that ethics is life because ethics is the very
science and art of human living, one that gives life its direction, goal, worth,
and meaning. Ethics is both co-extensive and co-intensive with life.
Morality and Law - Morality and Law are intimately related. Right
and wrong, good and bad in human actions presuppose a law or rule of
conduct. Furthermore, the laws of the state are restatements, specifications
or interpretations of an anterior natural moral law. There is, however, a
striking difference between what is moral and what is legal. The legal only
covers the external acts of man; the moral governs even the internal acts of
man, such as the volitional and the intentional activities of the will and
mind, I.e., man’s thoughts and desires.
Ethics and Art - Ethics stands for moral goodness; art, for beauty.
But as transcendentals the beautiful and the good are one. Evil always
implies ugliness or defects and the good is always beautiful since it is the
very object of desire and therefore, like beauty, pleases when perceived.
The question often arises as to whether a piece of art which is offensive to
morals can ever be considered beautiful.
There can be no conflict between true art and true morality because
both have the same aim: to arouse and to inspire the noble emotions of
man. Consequently, a piece of art which arouses the basic impulses of man
defeats the very purpose of art.
Ethics and Politics - Man owes allegiance to the State. Politics aims
at good government for the temporal welfare of the citizens. But between
the temporal and the spiritual and eternal welfare there is no conflict. The
two are inseparable in ma’s present state of experience, where the material
and the spiritual, the body and the spirit, form one person. Politics has often
become very dirty and the reason is precisely because it is divorced from
ethics. Disorder and confusion inevitably follow in a state from such
violations of ethical principles, as: electoral frauds, bribery, graft, blackmail,
intrigue, etc.
Religion and Ethics - The relationship between religion and ethics is
the closest among the phases of human activity. This is evident from the
following considerations:
A) Both of these are based on the same postulates:

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 1. The existence of a Creator
2. Freedom of the will of man
3. Immortality
B) Both have the same end- the attainment of man’s supreme
purpose or man’s ultimate end.
C) Both prescribe the same means for attaining the goal of man: right
living.
The question sometimes arises whether there can really be ethics
apart from religion. The answer is that true ethics can never be separated
from God. Reason: Ethics implies morality and morality presupposes a
distinction between right and wrong in human actions.

The Importance of Ethics

The Importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from the
importance of ethics itself.
1. Ethics means right living and good moral character, and it is in
good moral character that finds his true worth and perfection. The supreme
purpose of human living lies not in acquisition of material goods or bodily
pleasures nor in the attainment of good health and
strength, not even in the development of intellectual skills but in the
development of the moral qualities which lift man for above creations.
2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man- of all
man’s faculties; the moral, intellectual, and physical powers in man. The
highest of man’s powers in man. The highest of man’s powers are his
reason and will. Thus, the primary objective of education is the moral
development of the will. “Knowledge is good, bodily health and strength and
strength are good, but first and above all- GOOD CHARACTER.
3. According to Socrates, “the unexamined life is not worth living: for
man”. Ethics is the investigation of the meaning of life. That is why Plato
calls and considers ethics the supreme Science, the Science par excellence,
as it is this science that deals with the SUMMON BONUM, (HAPPINESS) the
supreme purpose of human living.
4. Ethics is an indispensable knowledge. without moral perception,
man is only an animal. For morality is the foundation of every human
society:
a. “without civic morality, communities perish,”
b. “Without personal morality their survival has no value.”
Every culture admits the importance of morality as a standard of
behavior. When the moral foundations of a nation are threatened that
society, itself is threatened.

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 5. Ethics is LIFE because ethics is the very science and art of human
living, one that gives life its direction, goal, worth, and meaning.

TOPIC 3: The Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

Ethics - generally speaking, is about matters such as the good thing

that we should pursue and the bad thing that we should avoid; the right
ways in which we could or should act and the wrong ways of acting. It is
about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior. It may
involve obligations that we are expected to fulfill, prohibitions that we are
required to respect. Or ideals that we are encouraged to meet. Ethics as a
subject for us to study is about determining the grounds for the values with
particular and special significance to human life.

CLARIFICATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Recognizing the notions of good and bad, and right and wrong, are
the primary concern of ethics. To start, it would be useful to clarify the
following points.

Kinds of Valuation

Our first point of clarification is to recognize there are instances when

we make value judgments that are not considered to be part of ethics.

For instance, I could say that this new movie I had just seen was
a “good” one because I enjoyed it, or a song I had just heard on the
radio was a “bad” one because it had an unpleasant tone, but these
are not part of the discussion of ethics.
I may have an opinion as to what is the “right” dip (sawsawan)
for my chicken barbecue, or I may maintain that it is “wrong” to wear
a leather vest over a Barong Tagalog, and these are not concerns of
ethics.
These are valuations that fall under the domain of aesthetics. The
word “aesthetics” is derived from the Greek word aesthesis (“sense” or
“feeling”) and refers to the judgments of personal approval or disapproval
that we make about what we see, hear, smell, or taste. In fact, we often use
the word “taste” to refer to the personal aesthetic preferences that we have

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on these matters, such as “his taste in music” or “her taste in clothes”.
Similarly, we have a sense of approval or disapproval concerning certain
actions which can be considered relatively more trivial in nature.
Thus, for instance, I may think that it is “right” to knock politely
on someone’s door, while it is “wrong” to barge into one’s office
knock politely on someone’s door, while it is “wrong” to barge into
one’s office.
Perhaps, I may approve of a child who knows how to ask for
something
properly by saying “please” and otherwise, disapprove of a woman
that I
see picking her nose in public.

These and other examples similar examples belong to the category of

etiquette, which is concerned with right and wrong actions, but those which
might be considered not quite grave enough to belong to a discussion on
ethics. To clarify this point, we can differentiate how I may be displeased
seeing a healthy young man refuse to offer his seat on the bus to an elderly
lady but by indignation and shock would be much greater if I were to see a
man deliberately push another one out of a moving bus.
We can also consider how a notion of right and wrong actions can
easily appear in a context that is not a matter of ethics.

This could also be when learning how to bake, for instance, I am told
that the right thing to do would be to mix the dry ingredients first, such as
flour, or sugar before bringing in any liquids, like milk or cream; this is the
right thing to do in baking but not one that belongs to the discussion of
ethics.

This could also be when learning how to play basketball. I am

instructed that it is against the rules to walk more than two steps without
dribbling the ball; again, obeying this rule to not travel is something that
makes sense only in the context of the game and is not an ethical
prohibition.

We derive from the Greek word ‘techne’ the English words of

“technique” and “technical” which are often used to refer to a proper way
(or right way) of doing things, but a technical valuation (or right and wrong
technique of doing things) may not necessarily be an ethical one as these
examples show.

Recognizing the characteristics of aesthetic and technical valuation

allows us to have a rough guide as to what belongs to a discussion of ethics.
They involve valuations that we make in a sphere of human actions,
characterized by certain gravity and concern the human well-being or
human life itself. Therefore, matters that concern human well-being such as

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poverty, inequality, or sexual identity are often included in discussion of
ethics.

One complication that can be noted is that the distinction between

what belongs to ethics and what does not is not always so clearly defined.
At times, the question of what is grave and trivial is debatable, and
sometimes some of the most heated discussion in ethics could be on the
fundamental question whether a certain sphere of human activities belongs
to this discussion.

Are clothes always just a matter of taste or would provocative

clothing call for some kind of moral judgment?
Can we say that a man who verbally abuses his girlfriend is
simply showing bad manners or does this behavior deserve stronger
moral condemnation?

Ethics and Morals

Our second clarification is on the use of the word’s “ethics” and
“morals”. This discussion of ethics and morals would include cognates such
as ethical, unethical, immoral, amoral, morality, and so on. As we proceed,
we should be careful particularly on the use of the word “not” when applied
to the words “moral” or “ethical” as this can be ambiguous. One might say
that cooking is not ethical, that is, the act of cooking does not belong to a
discussion of ethics; on the other hand, one might say that lying is not
ethical, but the meaning here is that the act of lying would be an unethical
act.
Let us consider those two words further. The term “morals” may be
used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe
acts that people perform. Thus, it is sometimes said that an individual’s
personal conduct is referred to as his morals, and if he falls short of
behaving properly, this can be described as immoral. However, we also
have terms such as “moral judgment” or “moral reasoning”, which suggest
a rational aspect. The term “ethics” can be spoken of as the discipline of
studying and understanding ideal behavior and ideal ways of thinking. Thus,
ethic is acknowledged as an intellectual discipline belonging to philosophy.
However, acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are also generally
described as ethical and unethical, respectively. In addition, with regard to
the acceptable and unacceptable ways of behaving in a given field, we have
the term “professional ethics” (e.g., legal ethics for the proper comportment
of lawyers and other people in the legal profession; medical ethics for
doctors and nurses; media ethics for writers and reporters).
Therefore, various thinkers and writers posit a distinction between the
terms “moral” and “ethics” and they may have good reasons for doing so,
but there is no consensus as to how to make that distinction. Ordinary

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conversation presents a much less rigid distinction between these terms,
and in this book, we will lean in that direction as we do not need to occupy
ourselves here with the question of how different thinkers and writers
construe that distinction. So, in this book, we will be using the terms
“ethical” and “moral” (likewise, “ethics” and “morality”) interchangeably.

Descriptive and Normative

Our third point of clarification is to distinguish between a a descriptive
and a normative study of ethics. A descriptive study of ethics reports how
people, particularly groups, make their moral valuations without making any
judgment either for or against these valuations. This kind of study is often
the work of the social scientist: either a historian (studying different moral
standards over time) or a sociologist or an anthropologist (studying different
moral standards across cultures). A normative study of ethics, as is often
done in philosophy or moral theology, engages the question: What could or
should be considered as the right way of acting? In other words, a
normative discussion prescribes what we ought to maintain as our
standards or bases for moral valuation. When engaging in a discussion of
ethics, it is always advisable to recognize whether one is concerned with a
descriptive view (e.g., noting how filial piety and obedience are pervasive
characteristics of Chinese culture) or with a normative perspective (e.g.,
studying how Confucian ethics enjoins us to obey our parents and show filial
piety).
We need to go further. A philosophical discussion of ethics goes
beyond recognizing the characteristics of some descriptive theory; also, it
does not simply accept as correct any normative theory. A philosophical
discussion of ethics engages in a critical consideration of the strengths and
weaknesses of these theories.

Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma

As the final point of clarification, it may be helpful to distinguish a
situation that calls for moral valuation. It can be called a moral issue. For
instance, imagine a situation wherein a person cannot afford a certain item,
but then the possibility presents itself for her to steal it. This is a matter of
ethics (and not just law) insofar as it involves the question of respect for
one’s property. We should add that “issue” is also often used to refer to
those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and
inclusive debate (thus, would often hear topics such as capital punishment
and euthanasia as moral “issues”).
When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of
what act to perform, she is called to make a moral decision. For instance, I
choose not to take something I did not pay for. When a person is an

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observer who makes an assessment on the actions or behavior of someone,
she is making a moral judgement. For instance, a friend of mine chooses
to steal from a store, and I make an assessment that it is wrong.
Finally, going beyond the matter of choosing right over wrong, or
good over bad, and considering instead the more complicated situation
wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing
between lesser of two evils: this is referred to as a moral dilemma. We
have a moral dilemma when an individual can choose only one from a
number of possible actions, and there are compelling ethical reasons for the
various choices. A mother may be conflicted between wanting to feed her
hungry child, but then recognizing that it would be wrong for her to steal is
an example of a moral dilemma.

REASONING
Why do we suppose that a certain way of acting is right and its
opposite is wrong? The study of ethics is interested in questions like these:
Why do we decide to consider this way of
acting as acceptable while that way of acting, its opposite, is unacceptable?
To put it in another way, what reasons do we give to decide or to judge that
a certain way of acting is either right or wrong?
A person’s fear of punishment or desire for reward can provide him a
reason for acting in a certain way. It is common to hear someone say: “I did
not cheat on an exam because I was afraid that I might get caught,” or “I
looked after my father in the hospital because I wanted to get a higher
allowance.” In a certain sense, fear of punishment and desire for reward can
be spoken of as giving someone a “reason” for acting in a certain way. But
the question then would be: Is this reason good enough? That is to say, this
way of thinking seems to be a shallow way of understanding reason
because it does not show any true understanding of why cheating on an
exam is wrong or why looking after a member of my family is in itself a
good thing. The promise of rewards and the fear of punishments can
certainly motivate us to act, but are not in themselves a determinant of the
rightness or wrongness of a certain way of acting or of the good or the bad
in a particular pursuit. Is it possible to find better reasons for finding a
certain way of acting either acceptable or unacceptable?
As Traer (2013) explains, in moral philosophy, an argument is not
simply about our beliefs or opinions; instead, it is about the reasons
underlying those beliefs or opinions. This means that the real value of
discussing and debating ethical questions is not to ‘win the argument’ or to
‘score points’ against the other person! It is more important to provide
carefully considered arguments to support our ideas, and to allow for
rational – and deeper – understanding of the reasons underlying our beliefs,

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ideas and attitudes. Crucially, this requires careful listening to, analysis of
and learning from the arguments that others make.
One common fault with many arguments about what is ‘right’ or
‘wrong’ – and one that Traer (2013) highlights – involves what is known as a
rationalization. A rationalization occurs when we use what at first glance
seem to be rational or credible motives to cover up our true (and perhaps
unconscious) motives.
Types of reasoning Traer (2013) explains that we can uncover these
types of errors in our own and others’ arguments by using what he calls
critical reasoning.

Three forms of critical reasoning:

1. Reasoning by analogy - explains one thing by comparing it to
something else that is similar, although also different. In a good analogy,
the similarity outweighs the dissimilarity and is clarifying. For instance,
animals are like and unlike humans, as humans are also animals. Is the
similarity sufficiently strong to support the argument that we should ascribe
rights to nonhuman animals as we do to humans?’
2. Deductive reasoning - applies a principle to a situation. For
instance, if every person has human rights, and you are a person, then you
have human rights like every person.
3. Inductive reasoning - involves providing evidence to support a
hypothesis. The greater the evidence for a hypothesis, the more we may
rely on it. The fact that there is mounting evidence that the burning of
fossil fuels is having a detrimental effect on global climate, for
example, is used to substantiate the argument that we have a moral duty to
reduce carbon
carbon emissions.
From this, we can define principles as rationally established grounds
by which one justifies and maintains moral decisions and judgments. But
why do we maintain one particular principle rather than another? Why
should I maintain that I should care for fair play or returning to the case of
fraternity hazing, why is it wrong to cause another person physical injury or
take another’s life? We can maintain principles, but we can also ask what
good reasons for doing so. Such reasons may differ. So, for example, what
makes the death of Cris such a tragedy? One person may say that life is
sacred and God-given. Another person may declare that human life has a
priceless dignity. Still another may put forward the idea that taking
another’s life does not contribute to human happiness but to human misery
instead. How exactly do we arrive at any of these claims? This is where we
turn to theory.

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 A moral theory is a systematic attempt to establish the validity of
maintaining certain moral principles. Insofar as a theory is a system of
thought or of ideas, it can also be referred to as framework, as a theory of
interconnected ideas, and at the same time, a structure through which we
can evaluate our reasons for valuing certain decision or judgment.

SOURCES OF AUTHORITY
Several common ways of thinking about ethics are based on the idea
that the standards of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that
commands our obedience. In the following section, we will explore three of
such ideas: the authority of laws, the authority of one’s religion, and the
authority of one’s own culture.

Law
Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by
one who has charge of society (St. Thomas Aquinas). It is supposed that law
is one’s guide to ethical behavior.
Laws are “ordinance of reason” because they are rational
deliberations intended to guide men towards what is good for them and for
society. They direct men to perform certain activities as good for them and
for society. The main objective or purpose of the laws is the attainment of
the common good.
Laws are “promulgated” – that they are made known to the people
who are bound to observe them.
Laws are passed by “one who has charge of society” – because
they can only be valid if they are only be valid if they are the legitimate
exercise of authority. Accordingly, only those who have the power and
responsibility to govern have the power to enact the law.
Laws are necessary to man. They regulate human activity. Without
laws, there will be anarchy and chaos, because each one will act according
to his wishes without regard for the common good. Without laws, Man will
not realize his ultimate purpose in life.

Classification of Law
1. Eternal Law
-Are those promulgated, or made known to us, by special command of
God/Instituted by the will of God.
-Is the design of God, as a Supreme Creator, to direct all created
things to their respective proper ends.

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 - God’s eternal plan and providence for the universe. Example: The
Decalogue of Moses- Ten Commandments

2. Natural Law/Moral Law - (God as the author - THE ALL- WISE)

-Is the Eternal law as known to man by his reason.
-Is recognized by all men regardless of creed, race, culture or
historical circumstances.
- Man’s reason shows him the natural order as a thing to be conserved
and not disturbed. By his rational nature, man is aware of a general law:
“Conserve the natural order”, or in other words, “Do good and avoid evil”.
This is the fundamental expression of the Natural Law.
THEREFORE: Natural Law commands the conserving of the natural
order,
is a law unchanging and unchangeable for it is a direction to guide mean to
their proper ultimate end thus, the direction toward that end must be
constant and unchanging.
*The reason why it is called natural is because it is not communicated
in a supernatural way; this is not a result of a command of a legislative or
authority; the precept of a natural law is found and derived from the nature
of man. Example: Not obeying the elders is against the natural law.

Properties of the Natural Law

1. It is universal- it is true wherever human nature manifest itself.

2. It is obligatory- it is imperative because it is a duty that ought to be

fulfilled.

3. It is recognizable – it enables man to recognize self- evident

principles, such as: “Do good and avoid evil”.

4. It is immutable or unchangeable – it is immutable because man’s

essential nature can never be lost as long as man is man.

5. Indispensable- no one is dispensed or excused in the observance of

the natural law. Because the origin of the natural law is God. Natural
law is identical with God’s will. Evidently, man has no authority over a
law of this status. This means that if there is in dispensation of this
law, there is a violation in God’s law.
That every sane adult must know that good is to be done and evil
avoided, and
must recognize the obviously good things as good and evident evils as evil.
In the Philippines, Filipinos are constrained to obey the laws of the
land as stated in the country’s criminal and civil codes. Making this even
more particular, in Cebu, residents are constrained to follow any provincial
laws or city ordinances. One can easily imagine this becoming even more
localized to the barangay or village level, where local or municipal layers of
obligation are there for residents to follow.
The term positive law or human positive law refers to the
different rules and regulations that are posited or put forward by an

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authority figure that require compliance. It is law enacted by church or
state. An ordinance of reason, derived from the natural law, or making a
concrete and determinate application of the natural law, promulgated for
the common good by human agency in charge of a society. These laws are
intended to preserve peace and harmony within a society and to direct each
member of that society to work towards the common good. Examples of
Positive Law are:
1. The Laws of the State - embodied in the Constitution. Example:
Everyone must pay his due taxes, obey traffic rules.
2. The Laws of the Catholic Church - embodied in the Canon Law.
Example: Attend mass every Sunday, love God above all. Etc.

Properties of Human Positive Laws:

1. Human laws must conform to divine laws. This is because all
legitimate authority emanates from God. No human authority may willfully
contradict God’s will.
2. Human laws must promote the common good. This common good
is spelled out in terms of prosperity, health, peace and order, intellectual
and moral growth- for the whole society.
3. Human law must be just and not discriminatory of certain
individuals or groups. All laws must be applied proportionately to all
members of society so that the needs and requirements of each are served.
Human Positive Law, when it is truly law, binds the conscience of its
subjects, for it is rooted in the natural law, and remotely in the Eternal Law
of God Himself.

Religion
The idea that one is obliged to obey her God in all things, expresses a
claim that many people of a religious sensibility find appealing and
immediately valid. As a foundation to ethical values, this is referred to as
the divine command theory. The divinity called God, Allah, or Supreme
Being commands and one is obliged to obey her Creator.
Many of us had been brought up with one form of religious upbringing
or another, so it is very possible that there is a strong inclination in us to
refer to our religious background to back up our moral valuations. However,
one concern on this matter is the presence of a multiplicity of religions in
our society. Each faith demands differently from its adherents, which
would apparently result in conflicting ethical standards. For instance,
certain religions have prohibitions concerning what food maybe consumed
while others do not share the same constraints.
Culture

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 Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware
that there are ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our own,
that there is in fact a wide diversity in how different people believe it is
proper to act. Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or unacceptable is
relative to, or that is to say, dependent on one’s culture. This position is
referred to as cultural relativism.
There is something appealing to this way of thinking because cultural
relativism seems to conform to what we experience, which is reality if the
differences in how cultures make their ethical valuations. Second, by taking
one’s culture as the standard, we are provided for the basis of our
valuations. Third, this teaches us to be tolerant of others from different
cultures, as we realize that we are in no position to judge whether the
ethical thought or practice of another culture is acceptable or unacceptable.
In turn, our own culture’s moral code is neither superior to nor inferior to
any other, but they would provide us the standards that are appropriate and
applicable to us.
Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own
terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture.
The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not
typically part of one’s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural
relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior than another
culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc. [11] It is a
concept that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a
specific social context. This is also based on the idea that there is no
absolute standard of good or evil, therefore every decision and judgment of
what is right and wrong is individually decided in each society. The concept
of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the
perspective of each person within their particular culture. Overall, there is
no right or wrong ethical system. In a holistic understanding of the term
cultural relativism, it tries to promote the understanding of cultural
practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating insects,
genocides or genital cutting.
There are two different categories of cultural relativism:
1. Absolute: Everything that happens within a culture must and
should not be
questioned by outsiders. The extreme example of absolute cultural
relativism would be the Nazi party’s point of view justifying the Holocaust.
2. Critical: Creates questions about cultural practices in terms of who
is accepting them and why. Critical cultural relativism also recognizes power
relationships.
Absolute cultural relativism is displayed in many cultures, especially
Africa, that practice female genital cutting. This procedure refers to the
partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or any other trauma
to the female reproductive/genital organs. By allowing this procedure to

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Lovelyn L. Granfiel
happen, females are considered women and then are able to be married.
FGC is practiced mainly because of culture, religion and tradition. Outside
cultures such as the United States look down upon FGC, but are unable to
stop this practice from happening because it is protected by its culture.
Cultural relativism can be seen with the Chinese culture and their
process of feet binding. Foot binding was to stop the growth of the foot and
make them smaller. The process often began between four and seven years
old. A ten-foot bandage would be wrapped around the foot forcing the toes
to go under the foot. It caused the big toe to be closer to the heel causing
the foot to bow. In China, small feet were seen as beautiful and a symbol of
status. The women wanted their feet to be “three-inch golden lotuses”. It
was also the only way to marry into money. Because men only wanted
women with small feet, even after this practice was banned in 1912, women
still continued to do it. To Western cultures the idea of feet binding might
seems torturous, but for the Chinese culture it was a symbol of beauty that
has been ingrained the culture for hundreds of years. The idea of beauty
differs from culture to culture.

Senses of the Self

It is sometimes thought that one should not rely on any external
authority to tell oneself what the standards of moral valuation are, but
should instead turn inwards. In this section, we will look into three theories
about ethics that center on the self: subjectivism, psychological egoism and
ethical egoism.

Subjectivism
The starting point of subjectivism is the recognition that the individual
thinking person (subject) is at the heart of all moral valuations. She is the
one who is confronted with the situation and is burdened with the need to
make a decision of judgment. From this point, subjectivism leaps to more
radical claim that the individual is the sole determinant of what is morally
good or bad, right or wrong. We often encounter these statements: “No one
can tell me what is right and wrong.” “I am entitled to my own opinion.”
There is something appealing about these statements because they
seem to express a cherished sense of personal independence. But a close
look at these statements may reveal problems and in seeing these, we see
problems of subjectivism.
“No one can tell me what is right and wrong.” In a sense, there is
some validity to this. No one can compel another to accept a certain value
judgment if she herself does not concur with it. However, we know that this
statement cannot be taken as absolute. We realize, in many instances, that
we had maintained an idea or an opinion that further discussion reveals it

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Lovelyn L. Granfiel
was actually erroneous. We realize that we can be mistaken and that we
can be corrected by others. Why is this not also possibly applicable when
we are speaking of ethics?
“I am entitled to my own opinion.” Here, once again, is a valid point
that is often misused. Certainly, each person has the right to believe what
she believes and has the right to express this. But this right is often
stubbornly misconstrued as some kind of immunity from criticism and
correction. To insist on one’s right in to having opinions whatever these
happen to be is to exhibit a closed-mindedness that rightly invites censure
from someone trying to think more critically about values.

Psychological Egoism
Let us consider this another cliché. It would go like this: “Human
beings are naturally self-centered, so all actions are always already
motivated by self-interest.”
Psychological Egoism - is a theory that describes the underlying dynamic
behind all human actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not direct
one to act in a particular way. Instead, it points out that there is
already an underlying basis for how one acts. The ego itself has its
desires and interests, and all our actions are geared toward satisfying
these interests.
For instance, I watch a movie or read a book because I want to, or go
for a walk and do some window shopping in the mall because I enjoy that. I
take a certain course in college because I think it will benefit me, or I join an
organization because I will get some good out of it. We do things in pursuit
of our own self-interest all the time.
But what about other types of behavior that we would commonly say
are directed toward the other? Consider, for example, an act of generosity,
in which someone helps a friend with her thesis rather than play video
games, or someone makes use of her free Saturday helping build house for
Gawad Kalinga? The psychological egoist would maintain that underlying
such apparently other-directed behavior is a self-serving desire, even if one
does not it or is even conscious of it. Perhaps, he only helped his friend with
her thesis because he trying to impress her. Perhaps she helps out with
Gawad Kalinga because this is how she relieves her sense of guilt at being
well-off compared to others. This idea is that is that whether or not the
person admits it, one’s actions are ultimately always motivated by self-
serving desire.

Ethical Egoism

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Lovelyn L. Granfiel
 Ethical egoism differs from psychological egoism in that it does not
support all our actions
are already inevitably self-serving. Instead, ethical egoism prescribes that
we should make our own ends, our own interests, as the single overriding
concern. We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do
that only if it ultimately benefits us. This theory acknowledges that it is dog-
eat-dog world out there and given that, everyone ought to put herself at the
center. One should consider herself as the priority and not allow any other
concerns, such as the welfare of other people, to detract from this pursuit.
It is clear that we have our interests and desires, and would want
them satisfied. Thus, this question can be asked: Why should I have any
concern about the interests of others? This is what ethical egoism ultimately
translates into-- not just some pleasant pursuit of one’s own desires, but the
imposition of a will to power that is potentially destructive of both the self
and of others. One can take this view, if one wishes, but it is also possible to
wonder whether there is a way of recognizing our being in the world with
others, of thinking our own well-being concomitantly with the well-being of
others. Perhaps this is what the study of ethics is all about.

D. Elaborate. Answer the question in not less than 5 sentences.

In what way is normative ethics valuable to one’s life? Discuss how
this branch of ethics play an important role in your life.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

E. Evaluate
I. Identification. Identify what is being asked in the following statements.
Write the answer on the space provided before the number.
_____________ 1. It is an inquiry concerning norms of morality, its
clarification, and justification that can be applied to different moral fields
and situation.
_____________ 2. He is the philosopher who held that the good of a man
resides in his function.
_____________ 3. It is a character or disposition realized in action according to
the mean.
_____________ 4. It is the belief that good lies in the consequences of an
action.
_____________ 5. It is the problem in philosophy regarding values.

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Lovelyn L. Granfiel
_____________ 6. He is the philosopher who considers good as a substance.
_____________ 7. It is an ethical field concerned with the relationship of the
medical practitioners and their clients.
_____________ 8. It is the belief that values depend on the group value
system.
_____________ 9. It is an ethical field that governs the conduct of lawyers in
the practice of the profession.
_____________ 10. This is the ethical field concerned with the acceptable or
unacceptable actions affecting the environment.

II. Essay. Answer the following questions. Use the space provided. (10 pts
each)
1. In relation to the current crisis, we are facing today, how does Law,
Culture, and Religion guide our behavior in society?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

[Link] all man’s activities, with what is ethics most intimately related? Justify
your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:
1. Alexander, L, & Moore, M. “Deontological Ethics”, Nov. 21, 2007, [Link] Accessed
August 4, 2020

2. Babor, Eddie R. Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action. Rex Bookstore, 2006

3. Bulaong, Oscar G. Jr., Calano, Mark Joseph T., [Link]. Ethics Foundations of Moral [Link] Bookstore,
2018

4. Montemayor, F. Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. National Bookstore, 2006

5. Combes, LM., et al. Doing Ethics: Introduction to Moral Philosophy. Mindshapers Co., 2015

[Link] Quisimundo. “DEPED Releases Rules or Law Shielding Kids from TV Violence.” Philippine Daily Inquirer, 17
July 2012,

[Link]://[Link]/230377/[Link] August
3, 2020

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Lovelyn L. Granfiel
[Link], Austin. " Deontology and Ethics" accessed July 24, 2021, [Link]

[Link]://[Link]/goals/goal17

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