Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 1

Wave Motion 1

It's just a job. Grass grows, waves pound the sand, I beat people up.
— Muhammad Ali

Overview
To transport energy, momentum or angular momentum from one place to another, one
can give these mechanical properties to an object and send it to the destination. This is
how they are transferred from a gun to a target by means of a bullet.
But there is an indirect way. Microscopic particles of the source can interact with nearby
particles, transferring energy, etc., to them. These particles in turn can transfer these
quantities to their next neighbors, and so on down the line until the destination is
reached. This kind of step-wise transmission is called wave motion.
The particles occupying the intervening space and which pass along the energy, etc.,
constitute the medium for the transmission. These particles move back and forth only a
little distance from their original positions, while the “disturbance” travels from the
source to the receiver, which might be a very large distance.
There are two distinct types of wave motion:
Longitudinal waves. The particles in the medium move back and forth along the line
traveled by the energy. Sound is an example of this kind of wave.
Transverse waves. The particle motion is perpendicular to the line along which the
energy moves. A wave on a stretched string is an example.
So is an electromagnetic wave, but in that case there is no intervening medium, only the fields.

Waves can be a combination of these types. In water waves, for example, the particles
move around in circles.
General description
Waves in a string are a useful case for analysis, because one can actually see the motion
of the medium.
We consider a string stretched between two points on the x-axis, and subjected to a
disturbance that displaces some of the particles in the y-direction. At t = 0 let the shape
of the string be a curve given by the formula y = f (x) .
Because of the elastic interaction between neighboring particles, the disturbance will be
passed along the string. We will assume (as an approximation) that the shape of the
disturbance does not change while it moves down the string.
If the disturbance moves in the +x direction with speed v, then at time t the new shape
of the string will be described by y = f (x − vt) , where f is the same function as before.
Mathematically, it is just like moving the coordinate origin to the right by the amount vt.

The situation is as shown.

 Physics 141
Physics 141 Wave Motion
Wave Motion 11 Page 22
Page

The situation is as shown.

y = f(x,0)

vt

y = f(x,t)

If the disturbance moves in the –x direction with the same speed, the new formula will
If the disturbance moves in the –x direction with the same speed, the new formula will
be y = f (x + vt) .
be y = f (x + vt) .
This is
This is an
an important
important property
property of
of all
all functions
functions describing
describing waves:
waves: if
if the
the variables
variables appear as xx −− vt
appear as vt then
then
the wave
the wave moves
moves in
in the
the positive
+x-direction; if x + vtif, xthe
x-direction; wave
+ vt , themoves in the –x-direction.
wave moves in the negative x-direction.

The function y(x,t) is called the wave function for the disturbance.
For
For waves
waves moving
moving only
only along
along one
one line
line (the
(the x-axis),
x-axis), such
such functions
functions obey
obey aa simple
simple
relationship between second partial derivatives:
relationship between second partial derivatives:
∂∂22 yy 11 ∂∂22 yy
=
= ..
∂x 22 vv 22 ∂t 22
∂x ∂t
The partial derivative of a function that depends on two or more variables is calculated by holding all
The partial derivative of a function that depends on two or more variables is calculated by holding all
the variables except one constant. For example, in calculating ∂y /∂x one treats t as a constant.
the variables except one constant. For example, in calculating ∂y / ∂x one treats t as a constant.
This relationship is called the wave equation. Its solutions include the wave functions
Thisany
for relationship is called
disturbance moving thealong
wavethe
equation. Its solutions
x axis with speed v. Ifinclude the wave
the particles functions
of any
for any disturbance
medium moving along
obey this equation, the xcan
then they axis with speed
support [Link].
If the particles of any
It provides a
medium obey this equation, then they can support
mathematical test for the potential presence of waves. wave motion. It provides a
mathematical test for the potential presence of waves.
As will be described in the next course, Maxwell “proved” the existence of electromagnetic waves by
As will bethat
showing described
electric in themagnetic
and next course, Maxwell
fields, “proved”
under the the existence of
right circumstances, canelectromagnetic
obey the wavewaves by
equation.
showing that electric and magnetic fields, under the right circumstances, can obey the wave
When he examined the speed of these waves, it turned out to be the observed speed of light. He then equation.
When hecorrectly
inferred examined thelight
that speed of these
itself must waves, it turned out towave.
be an electromagnetic be the observed speed of light. He then
guessed correctly that light itself must be an electromagnetic wave.
Wave speeds
The value of the speed v depends on the elastic and inertial properties of the medium.
The speed of waves in a medium depends on the elastic and inertial properties of the
We will examine some important special cases below.
medium. The particles of the medium execute small oscillatory motions about their
equilibrium positions, so the relevant properties are those that determine the frequency
of these oscillations.
We give without proof the formulas for the speeds of two important types of waves:
 Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 3

T
Transverse waves in a string: v = ;
µ
γ RT
Longitudinal waves in a gas (sound): v = .
M
In the first formula T is the string tension and µ is the mass per unit length of the
string. In the second formula, T is the (absolute, or Kelvin) temperature, M is the
molecular weight of the molecules of the gas, R is the universal gas constant, and γ is
the ratio of specific heats.
The important points in these formulas:
• The speed of a wave in a string is proportional to the square root of the tension and
inversely to the square root of the mass per unit length.
• The speed of waves in a gas (sound) is proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature and inversely proportional to the mass of the molecules.
Superposition
The wave equation is an example of what mathematicians call a linear homogeneous
partial differential equation of second order. The fact that it is linear (y and its
derivatives appear only to the first power) and homogeneous (every term contains y or
one of its derivatives) implies a simple mathematical property of its solutions, which
has important implications for the physics of wave motion.
Suppose we can find two different solutions of the equation, y1 and y2 . Then it is easy to
show simply by substitution that y1 + y2 is also a solution. That is a mathematical
property, but it has physical implications. In physical terms, each solution represents a
possible wave motion in the medium, so y1 and y2 represent different physical waves.
Since any solution of the wave equation represents a possible wave, it must be the case
that y1 + y2 also represents a wave. This is general property of wave motion:

If y1 and y2 represent possible waves, then

Principle of superposition
y1 + y2 also represents a possible wave.

As we will see, the “strength” of the wave function determines the amount of energy
carried by the wave. Because the value of a wave function at any point and time can be
negative as well as positive, the “superposed” wave y1 + y2 can be either larger or
smaller (at a particular point and time) than either of the waves represented by y1 and
y2 . This can give rise to a redistribution of energy in space, a phenomenon called
interference. It is this property that most clearly distinguishes the transport of energy
and other quantities by waves from other methods of transport.
If two bullets arrive at the same target simultaneously, the energy they give to the target is simply the
sum of their energies. If two waves arrive at a detector simultaneously the total energy delivered to
the detector has a range of possible values, from less than the sum of the energies of the two waves to
more than that sum. The precise value of the energy delivered depends not only on the energies of
the individual waves but on their “phase difference”, as we will discuss later.
 Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 4

The superposition principle can also be applied in reverse: one can decompose a
complex wave into the sum of simpler waves. This is a very useful fact.
Harmonic waves
The simplest kind of wave is one in which the particles all execute simple harmonic
motion. This is a harmonic wave. If it moves in the +x direction, it is described by
y(x,t) = Acos(kx − ω t + δ ) .
Harmonic waves are often also called "sinusoidal" waves. One could use sine instead of cosine; that
amounts only to a different choice of the constant δ .

The quantity A, which gives the maximum value of y, is called the amplitude. The
phase is the argument of the cosine, i.e., the quantity (kx − ω t + δ ) . The initial phase δ
is determined by the initial situation, i.e., the value of y for x = 0 and t = 0 .
Consider a harmonic wave in a string. At any instant the string’s shape is a sinusoidal
curve with distance λ (the wavelength) between successive peaks. As time goes on, the
particles at any point on the string execute SHM with frequency f. these quantities are
related to the ones appearing in the formula as follows:
• The wave number k is related to λ by k = 2π / λ .
• The angular frequency is ω = 2π f .
For a wave moving in the +x direction, x and t must appear in the combination x − vt ,
so we can write (kx − ω t) = k(x − vt) , which shows how the wave speed can be expressed
in terms of the wavelength and frequency, by two alternate formulas:

ω
Speed of harmonic wave v= = fλ
k

Pure harmonic waves described by the above formulas would be infinite in extent, so
they do not actually occur in nature. But they are important for two reasons:
• In a restricted region, some waves are well approximated by harmonic waves.
• Actual waves can be built up by superposition of harmonic waves of various
wavelengths, frequencies and initial phases.
Transport of energy
To specify the transport of energy by a wave we use the intensity, denoted by I:

The intensity of an energy flow is the power

Intensity transported across unit area perpendicular to
the flow.

Another useful quantity is the energy density, which is the energy content of the wave
per unit volume. We denote it by u. It is easy to show that these quantities are related to
each other and to the wave speed v:
I = uv .
We consider harmonic waves of angular frequency ω , moving with speed v, and give
without proof the intensity and energy density formulas for two important cases:
 Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 5

Elastic solids:
u = 12 ρω 2 A 2 , I = 12 ρ vω 2 A 2 .
Here A is the amplitude of the strain and ρ is the mass per unit volume.
A string is an elastic solid, with mass per unit length µ = ρ a , where a is the cross-section area. In that
case we usually talk about the total power Ia passing a point on the string.
Fluids:
P0 2 P0 2
u= , I= .
2ρv2 2ρv
Here P0 is the "pressure amplitude", the maximum deviation of the pressure above the
static pressure as the wave passes by. As before, ρ is the mass per unit volume. This
case includes sound waves in gases.
The most important feature of these formulas is a general rule of wave motion:
Energy density and intensity are proportional to the square of the wave amplitude.
These detailed formulas are given here for completeness. They are not much used in the assignments.

Reflection and transmission

A wave passing from one medium to another where its speed is different divides into
two parts: (1) a transmitted wave, moving at the speed appropriate to the new medium;
(2) a reflected wave, moving backwards in the original medium with the original speed.
If no energy is absorbed by the medium, the total energy of the reflected and
transmitted waves equals the energy of the incident wave, by conservation of energy.
The figure below shows a string made of two
parts joined together. The two parts have
1 2
different mass per unit length, and therefore
different wave speeds. (The tensions are the
same.) A wave pulse is incident from the left. (a)
Figure (a) shows a possible result after the
wave reaches the interface: the reflected
(b)
wave is on the same side of the string as the
incident wave. Figure (b) shows the other
possibility: the reflected wave is inverted.
Both of these possibilities satisfy the requirement that the wave function and its slope be
continuous at the point of intersection between the media (no breaks or kinks in the
string). In both cases energy can be conserved.
Which of these cases actually occurs? It depends on the wave speeds in the two media.
Here are the rules. (The proof is given at the end of this section.)

(a) If v1 < v2 , the reflected wave is not

Reflection at an interface inverted.
(b) If v1 > v2 , the reflected wave is inverted.
 Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 6

The inversion of the reflected wave is represented by a change of sign of that part of the
wave function. Since for any angle θ we have cos(θ + π ) = − cosθ , this change of sign
can also be accomplished by increasing the wave’s phase by π . Rule (b) is often stated
by saying the reflected wave undergoes a “phase change of π ”.
In a string larger mass density means lower wave speed, so if string 2 is less dense than
string 1 case (a) applies, while if string 2 is more dense case (b) applies. A wall is very
massive, so if a string is attached to a wall the reflected wave is always inverted.
The situation is different for sound waves striking a wall. The speed of sound is greater in the solid
wall than in air, so there is no phase change in the reflected sound wave.

The fraction of incident energy that is reflected is given by the “reflection coefficient” R;
the fraction transmitted is given by the “transmission coefficient” T. (Clearly R + T = 1.)
If the wave energy moves normal to the interface surface — as it does in a string —
there are simple formulas for R and T:
2
⎛ v − v2 ⎞ 4v1 v2
R=⎜ 1 ,T= .
⎝ v + v ⎟⎠
1 2 (v1 + v2 )2
The derivation is at the end of this section.

These properties apply to any kind of waves, including sound and light waves, as long
as the energy strikes the interface perpendicular to the surface.
For waves in a string reflected from a wall, v 2 is very small so nearly all of the energy is reflected.
For sound waves striking a wall v 2 is very large, so again nearly all of the energy is reflected. In our
applications we will assume R = 1 in such cases.

Interference of harmonic waves

Now we look at the situation where two one-dimensional harmonic waves exist
simultaneously in the same medium. At first we assume they travel in the same
direction, and to simplify things further we will assume they have the same amplitude.
They are described by the wave functions
y1 (x,t) = Acos(k1 x − ω 1t)
y2 (x,t) = Acos(k2 x − ω 2t + δ )
To find the total wave function, given by y = y1 + y2 , we use a trigonometric identity:
⎛α +β⎞ ⎛α −β⎞
cosα + cos β = 2cos ⎜ ⎟ ⋅cos ⎜ .
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
For our case this gives
(
y(x,t) = 2A ⋅cos 12 ( Δk ⋅ x − Δω ⋅t − δ ) ⋅cos k av x − ω avt + 12 δ ) (1)

where we have introduced the notations

Δk = k2 − k1 , Δω = ω 2 − ω 1
k av = 12 (k1 + k2 ), ω av = 12 (ω 1 + ω 2 )
This somewhat complicated formula for y(x,t) gives the general solution to our
problem. We will use it to examine several cases.
 Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 7

Simple interference of two waves

Let the two waves have the same values of k and ω (same wavelength and frequency)
and travel in the same direction. Then we find from the general formula Eq. (1):
y(x,t) = 2Acos(δ /2)⋅cos(kx − ω t + δ /2) .
This has the form of the wave function of a single harmonic wave with amplitude
Atot = 2Acos(δ /2) .
Let us compare the intensity of this resultant wave with the intensity of one of the
original waves alone. The individual waves both had the same amplitude, and therefore
the same intensity, which we call I1 . Then I1 = KA 2 , where the constant K depends on
what kind of medium the wave is in. Since the resultant wave is in the same medium, it
has intensity I = KAtot 2 . Squaring both sides and multiplying by K, we find

Simple interference I = 4I1 cos2 (δ /2) = 2I1 (1 + cosδ )

We have used the identity for the half-angle to get the second form, which is often more useful.

The resultant intensity varies between 0 and 4I1, depending on the value of δ . The two
extremes occur when δ is an even multiple of π ( I = 4I1 ), and when δ is an odd
multiple of π ( I = 0 ).
These cases have special names:

Constructive interference δ = 0, ±2π , ±4π ,...

Destructive interference δ = ±π , ±3π ,...

What might cause two waves to be out of phase with each other and thus interfere?
• They may have been emitted by two otherwise identical sources with different initial
phases. Different sources which emit waves having a definite phase relation between
them are called coherent. The two speakers in a stereo system are coherent sources,
and the stereo illusion arises from interference between the waves they emit.
• The waves may have started together in phase but traveled different paths to the
receiver, such that the total distance traveled from the source is not the same for
both. If wave 1 travels distance x1 and wave 2 travels distance x2 , then the phase
difference between them as they arrive at the receiver is given by
δ = k(x2 − x1 ) .
This is a very useful formula in practice.
• One or both of the waves may have been reflected at an interface between two
media. If the reflection is from a medium in which the waves move more slowly, the
reflected wave is inverted, which is equivalent to adding π to the wave’s phase.
The symbol δ in the intensity formula represents the total phase difference due to all of
these effects.
 Physics 141 Wave Motion 1 Page 8

Proof of the statements about reflection at an interface between two media

A harmonic wave is incident perpendicular to the interface between two media. At the
interface, which we take to be at x = 0 , the incident energy divides into a reflected wave
and a transmitted wave. The wave functions for the three waves are:
yinc (x,t) = A0 cos(kx − ω t)
yrefl (x,t) = A1 cos(kx + ω t) .
ytrans (x,t) = A2 cos( k′x − ω t)
The speed in the first medium is v1 = ω /k , while the speed in the second medium is
v2 = ω / k′ . (The frequency cannot change at the interface.)
The continuity conditions at the interface are that the total wave function in the first
medium (incident plus reflected) must equal that in the second medium, and their
slopes must match at the interface. Thus
yinc (0,t) + yrefl (0,t) = ytrans (0,t)

dyinc dyrefl dytrans .

+ =
dx x=0 dx dx x=0
x=0
These give
A0 cosω t + A1 cosω t = A2 cosω t
.
k[A0 sin(−ω t) + A1 sin(ω t)] = k′ sin(ω t)
or
A0 + A1 = A2
.
k(A1 − A0 ) = k′A2
Eliminating A2 we find
A1 1 + k′ /k 1 − v1 /v2 v2 − v1
= = = .
A0 1 − k′ /k 1 + v1 /v2 v2 + v1
This shows that: (a) If v1 < v2 then A1 has the same sign as A0 , so the reflected wave is
not inverted relative to the incident wave; (b) If v1 > v2 the amplitudes have opposite
signs and the reflected wave is inverted. These are the rules given above.
For the reflection coefficient we have:
2
I1 A1 2 ⎛ v2 − v1 ⎞
R= = 2 =⎜ ,
I0 A0 ⎝ v2 + v1 ⎟⎠
which is the formula given above. If either v2 >> v1 or v2 << v1 , the reflected intensity is
approximately equal to the incident intensity.
This argument proves these claims only for a single harmonic wave. But because the results depend
only on the wave speeds, they will also be true for any superposition of harmonic waves with the
same speeds. Any more complicated wave can be made by such a superposition, so the results are
generally true.