A
MINI-PROJECT REPORT
ON
“THE PID CONTROLLER”
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for Third Year
In
Electrical Engineering Department
Submitted to
Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari,
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon-01, Maharashtra, (India)
Grade ‘A’ NAAC Re-accredited (4th cycle)
Submitted By:
1._____________________________
2._____________________________
3._____________________________
Guided By:
(Prof._________________)
Nagaon Education Society’s
Gangamai College of Engineering, Nagaon,
(DHULE)-05 (B+ NAAC Accredited-(1st Cycle))
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.
Academic Year: - 2023- 2024
CERTIFICATE
Nagaon Education Society’s
Gangamai College of Engineering, Nagaon,
(Dhule)-05 (B+ NAAC Accredited-(1st Cycle))
This is to certify that, Mr./Mrs./Ms._______________________________ has
successfully carried out Minor-Project work on “_____THE PID CONTROLLER____” under
the guidance of Prof.__________________________ towards the partial fulfillment of Third
year in Electrical Engineering at Gangamai College of Engineering, Nagaon, Dhule of
Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon during the academic
year 20… - 20….
Date: - Seat No:-
Place: Nagaon, Dhule
P.R.N:-
Prof._______________________ Prof._______________________
(Guide) (Examiner)
Prof. Vinodkumar P. Patil Dr. [Link]
(Head of Dept.) (Principal, GCOE, Nagaon)
Acknowledgement
We are, at this moment of satisfaction, with deep sense of gratitude to Prof.
_______________________ for their valuable guidance and suggestion throughout the
duration of this work .I do not want to lose opportunity to thank them and acknowledge. I am
indebted to them for their sympathetic and helping attitude which became the source of
motivation for me.
We are also very gratefully thanks to Prof. Vinodkumar P. Patil, H.O.D of Electrical
Engineering Department, [Link], Principal of GCoE, Nagaon (Dhule) for his kind Co-
Operation and fireless help throughout the Project work of stage I & II.
We are also thankful to all staff members, who help directly or indirectly in completion of
this Project work of stage I & II.
1._____________________________
2._____________________________
3._____________________________
Third Year Electrical Engg.
(Academic Year-2023-24)
INDEX
1] ABSTRACT
2] INTRODUCTION
3] BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
4] INFORMATION OF PID CONTROLLER
5] CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND CIRCUIT ACTION
6] INFORMATION OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
7] ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
8] APPLICATION AREA
9] FUTURE MODIFICATION
10] CONCLUSION
11] REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
The PID control is the most commonly known for control process utilized as a part of industries
for controlling action. The basic technique for PID controllers makes it simple to Co ordinate
the process output. As the term PID suggest, it comprises of three separate constant parameters
which are adjusted in order to get ideal, steady and faster response.
In the control process, the majority of control loops based upon proportional, integral and
derivative controller. For specific process, the tuning of three parameters of controller is able
to provide specific control action to the system. Design methods leading to an optimal and
effective operation of PID controllers are economically vital for process industries.
The main focus of the project is about study of OPAMP and fabrication of an analog PID
Controller using the three control parameters. The Controller design is demonstrated through
simulation in order to get an output of better dynamic and static performance. The controller is
fabricated on hardware after the test of Individual terms:- proportional, integral and derivative.
The resultant output from controller is observed using the oscilloscope.
INTRODUCTION
Almost all process control today more than 95% is PID controller.
Earlier, the experiments were done all with controllers by Ziegler and Nichols with controllers
by Ziegler and Nichols. However, the nature of controllers was moderate. After the
development of the electronics devices and operational amplifiers, the controllers were
replaced by the electronic controllers. Nowadays, the main focus of the development is the
implementation with digital PID controllers.
The highest advantage of utilizing digital PID controllers is that the controller’s parameters
can be modified easily; subsequently, without changing any equipment, they can be changed.
Moreover, other than creating the control
Activity, the same advanced system can be utilized for various different applications. But, here
we are concerned with the study and implementation of analog PID controller design and how
they can be realized in real practice.
We may examine and discover strategies to do the configuration in specific cases. This requires
we should to put a few limitations and imperatives alongside pre-determined performance
conditions so as to show signs of improvement quality control in terms of performances. So,
controller design requires different types of factors to be dealt with. Each control system
intended for a detail or particular application needs to meet certain performances
determinations.
A few techniques determining the performances of a control system are:
1. By set of specifications in time domain and/or in frequency domain such as peak overshoot,
settling time, gain margin, phase margin, steady state Error etc.
2. By optimality of a certain function, e.g., an integral function.
Here, the choice of plant segments to be controlled is directed by performance as well as size,
weight, accessible force supply, cost and so forth. In this way, the plant for the most part cannot
meet the performance details. In spite of the fact that the designer is allowed to pick elective
components, this is generally not done on account of cost, accessibility and different
requirements.
However, a few components of a plant, its substitution are not a major issue in view of ease
and extensive variety of accessibility of such amplifiers. Just by gain modification, it might be
conceivable to meet the given details on performances of basic control systems. In such cases,
adjustments in gains appears to be the most straight and basic method for design. In most cases,
the gain modification does not give the desired result. Under such circumstances,
it is important to present some sort of suitable subsystems to drive the chosen plant to meet
the specific performances. These subsystems are known as controllers/compensators and their
application is to make up for the lack in the performances of the plant.
BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Origins
Continuous control, before PID controllers were fully understood and implemented, has one of
its origins in the centrifugal governor, which uses rotating weights to control a process. This
was invented by Christiaan Huygens in the 17th century to regulate the gap between millstones
in windmills depending on the speed of rotation, and thereby compensate for the variable speed
of grain feed.
With the invention of the low-pressure stationary steam engine there was a need for automatic
speed control, and James Watt’s self-designed "conical pendulum" governor, a set of revolving
steel balls attached to a vertical spindle by link arms, came to be an industry standard. This was
based on the millstone-gap control concept.
Rotating-governor speed control, however, was still variable under conditions of varying load,
where the shortcoming of what is now known as proportional control alone was evident. The
error between the desired speed and the actual speed would increase with increasing load. In
the 19th century, the theoretical basis for the operation of governors was first described by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1868 in his now-famous paper On Governors. He explored the
mathematical basis for control stability, and progressed a good way towards a solution, but
made an appeal for mathematicians to examine the problem. The problem was examined
further in 1874 by Edward Routh, Charles Sturm, and in 1895, Adolf Hurwitz, all of whom
contributed to the establishment of control stability criteria. In subsequent applications, speed
governors were further refined, notably by American scientist Willard Gibbs, who in 1872
theoretically analyzed Watt's conical pendulum governor.
About this time, the invention of the Whitehead torpedo posed a control problem that required
accurate control of the running depth. Use of a depth pressure sensor alone proved inadequate,
and a pendulum that measured the fore and aft pitch of the torpedo was combined with depth
measurement to become the pendulum-and-hydrostat control. Pressure control provided only a
proportional control that, if the control gain was too high, would become unstable and go into
overshoot with considerable instability of depth-holding. The pendulum added what is now
known as derivative control, which damped the oscillations by detecting the torpedo dive/climb
angle and thereby the rate-of-change of depth. This development named by Whitehead as "The
Secret" to give no clue to its action) was around 1868.
Another early example of a PID-type controller was developed by Elmer Sperry in 1911 for
ship steering, though his work was intuitive rather than mathematically-based.
It was not until 1922, however, that a formal control law for what we now call PID or three-
term control was first developed using theoretical analysis, by Russian American engineer
Nicolas Minorsky. Minorsky was researching and designing automatic ship steering for the US
Navy and based his analysis on observations of a helmsman. He noted the helmsman steered
the ship based not only on the current course error but also on past error, as well as the current
rate of change; this was then given a mathematical treatment by Minorsky. His goal was
stability, not general control, which simplified the problem significantly. While proportional
control provided stability against small disturbances, it was insufficient for dealing with a
steady disturbance, notably a stiff gale (due to steady-state error), which required adding the
integral term. Finally, the derivative term was added to improve stability and control.
Trials were carried out on the USS New Mexico, with the controllers controlling the angular
velocity (not the angle) of the rudder. PI control yielded sustained yaw (angular error) of ±2°.
Adding the D element yielded a yaw error of ±1/6°, better than most helmsmen could achieve.
The Navy ultimately did not adopt the system due to resistance by personnel. Similar work was
carried out and published by several other in the 1930s.
Industrial control
Proportional control using nozzle and flapper high gain amplifier and negative feedback
The wide use of feedback controllers did not become feasible until the development of
wideband high-gain amplifiers to use the concept of negative feedback. This had been
developed in telephone engineering electronics by Harold Black in the late 1920s, but not
published until 1934. Independently, Clesson E Mason of the Foxboro Company in 1930
invented a wide-band pneumatic controller by combining the nozzle and flapper high-gain
pneumatic amplifier, which had been invented in 1914, with negative feedback from the
controller output. This dramatically increased the linear range of operation of the nozzle and
flapper amplifier, and integral control could also be added by the use of a precision bleed valve
and a bellows generating the integral term. The result was the "Stabilog" controller which gave
both proportional and integral functions using feedback bellows. The integral term was called
Reset. Later the derivative term was added by a further bellows and adjustable orifice.
From about 1932 onwards, the use of wideband pneumatic controllers increased rapidly in a
variety of control applications. Air pressure was used for generating the controller output, and
also for powering process modulating devices such as diaphragm-operated control valves. They
were simple low maintenance devices that operated well in harsh industrial environments and
did not present explosion risks in hazardous locations. They were the industry standard for
many decades until the advent of discrete electronic controllers and distributed control systems
(DCSs).
With these controllers, a pneumatic industry signaling standard of 3–15 psi (0.2–1.0 bar) was
established, which had an elevated zero to ensure devices were working within their linear
characteristic and represented the control range of 0-100%.
In the 1950s, when high gain electronic amplifiers became cheap and reliable, electronic PID
controllers became popular, and the pneumatic standard was emulated by 10-50 mA and 4–20
mA current loop signals (the latter became the industry standard). Pneumatic field actuators
are still widely used because of the advantages of pneumatic energy for control valves in
process plant environments.
Showing the evolution of analog control loop signaling from the pneumatic to the
electroniceras
Electronic analog controllers
Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex electronic systems,
for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or
even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Discrete electronic analog
controllers have been largely replaced by digital controllers using microcontrollers or FPGAs
to implement PID algorithms. However, discrete analog PID controllers are still used in niche
applications requiring high-bandwidth and low-noise performance, such as laser-diode
controllers.
Control loop example
Further information: Control system
Consider a robotic arm that can be moved and positioned by a control loop. An electric motor
may lift or lower the arm, depending on forward or reverse power applied, but power cannot
be a simple function of position because of the inertial mass of the arm, forces due to gravity,
external forces on the arm such as a load to lift or work to be done on an external object.
The sensed position is the process variable (PV).
The desired position is called the setpoint (SP).
The difference between the PV and SP is the error (e), which quantifies whether the
arm is too low or too high and by how much.
The input to the process (the electric current in the motor) is the output from the PID
controller. It is called either the manipulated variable (MV) or the control variable (CV).
By measuring the position (PV), and subtracting it from the setpoint (SP), the error (e) is found,
and from it the controller calculates how much electric current to supply to the motor [MV]
A proportional – integral – derivative controller (PID controller). Is a Common feedback loop
component. In industrial control system. The Controller compares a measured value from a
process (Typically an. industrial process) with a reference set point value. The difference (or
"error" signal) is then used to calculate a new value for a manipulable input to the process that
brings the process measured value back. To its desired set point. Unlike simpler control
algorithms, the PID controller can adjust process outputs based on the history and rate of
change of the error signal, which gives more accurate and stable control (It can besh own
mathematically that a PID. loop will Produce accurate, stable control in cases where a simple
proportional 0 control would either have a steady –state error or would cause the process to
oscillate).
In older control literature this adjustment process is called a "reset" action. The
position of the needle on the gauge is a "measurement", "process value “or "process variable".
The desired value on the gauge is called a "set point" (also called "set value"). The difference
between the gauge's needles and the set point is the "error"
A control loop consists of three parts:
a). Measurement by a sensor connected to the process
b). Decision in a controller element.
c). Action through an output device such as a motor.
As the controller reads a sensor, it subtracts this measurement from the "set point" to determine
the "error". It then uses the error to calculate a correction to the process's input variable (the
"action") so that this correction will remove the error from the process's output measurement.
In a PID loop, correction is calculated from the error in three ways: cancel out the current error
directly (Proportional), the amount of time the error has continued uncorrected (Integral), and
anticipate the future Error from the rate of change of the error over time (Derivative).
A PID controller can be used to control any measurable variable which can be affected by
manipulating some other process variable. For example, it can be used to control temperature,
pressure, and flow rate, chemical composition, speed, or other variables PID" is named after
its three correcting calculations, which all add to and adjust the controlled quantity. These
additions are actually "subtractions" of error, because the proportions are usually negative:
PROPORTIONAL
To handle the present, the error is multiplied by a (negative) constant
P (for "proportional"), and added to (subtracting error from) the controlled quantity. P is only
valid in the band over which a controller's output is proportional to the error of the system.
Note that when the error is zero, a proportional controller's output is zero.
Steady-state error
Because a non-zero error is required to drive it, a proportional controller generally operates
with a so-called steady-state error. Steady-state error (SSE) is proportional to the process gain
and inversely proportional to proportional gain. SSE may be moderated by adding a
compensating bias term to the set point or output, or corrected dynamically by adding an
Integral term.
Integral
An integral term increases action in relation not only to the error but also the time for which it
has persisted. So, if the applied force is not enough to bring the error to zero, this force will be
increased as time passes. A pure "I" controller could bring the error to zero, but it would be
both slow reacting at the start (because the action would be small at the beginning, depending
on time to get significant) and brutal at the end (the action increases as long as the error is
positive, even if the error has started to approach zero).
Applying too much integral when the error is small and decreasing will lead to overshoot. After
overshooting, if the controller were to apply a large correction in the opposite direction and
repeatedly overshoot the desired position, the output would oscillate around the setpoint in
either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. If the amplitude of the oscillations increases
with time, the system is unstable. If they decrease, the system is stable. If the oscillations remain
at a constant magnitude, the system is marginally stable.
Derivative
A derivative term does not consider the magnitude of the error (meaning it cannot bring it to
zero: a pure D controller cannot bring the system to its set point), but the rate of change of
error, trying to bring this rate to zero. It aims at flattening the error trajectory into a horizontal
line, damping the force applied, and so reduces overshoot (error on the other side because of
too great applied force).
Control damping
In the interest of achieving a controlled arrival at the desired position (SP) in a timely and
accurate way, the controlled system needs to be critically damped. A well-tuned position
control system will also apply the necessary currents to the controlled motor so that the arm
pushes and pulls as necessary to resist external forces trying to move it away from the required
position. The setpoint itself may be generated by an external system, such as a PLC or other
computer system, so that it continuously varies depending on the work that the robotic arm is
expected to do. A well-tuned PID control system will enable the arm to meet these changing
requirements to the best of its capabilities.
Response to disturbances
If a controller starts from a stable state with zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the
controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process
that affect the process, and hence the PV. Variables that affect the process other than the MV
are known as disturbances. Generally, controllers are used to reject disturbances and to
implement setpoint changes. A change in load on the arm constitutes a disturbance to the robot
arm control process.
INFORMATION OF PID CONTROLLER
A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller or three-term controller)
is a control loop mechanism employing feedback that is widely used in industrial control
systems and a variety of other applications requiring continuously modulated control. A PID
controller continuously calculates an error value as the difference between a desired
setpoint (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and applies a correction based on
proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and D respectively), hence the name.
PID systems automatically apply accurate and responsive correction to a control function. An
everyday example is the cruise control on a car, where ascending a hill would lower speed if
constant engine power were applied. The controller's PID algorithm restores the measured
speed to the desired speed with minimal delay and overshoot by increasing the power output
of the engine in a controlled manner.
The first theoretical analysis and practical application of PID was in the field of automatic
steering systems for ships, developed from the early 1920s onwards. It was then used for
automatic process control in the manufacturing industry, where it was widely implemented in
pneumatic and then electronic controllers. Today the PID concept is used universally in
applications requiring accurate and optimized automatic control.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT ACTION
Here circuit is built by using OP amp. Here for this IC LM 741 is use. The +VCC of this IC is
at pin no 7. Negative supply is connected at pin no 4. Here duel power supply is use for the
energy of circuit
INFORMATION OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An operational amplifier (often op amp or op amp) is a DC-coupled electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input, a (usually) single-ended output, and an extremely
high gain. Its name comes from its original use of performing mathematical operations in
analog computers.
By using negative feedback, an op amp circuit's characteristics (e.g. its gain, input and
output impedance, bandwidth, and functionality) can be determined by external components
and have little dependence on temperature coefficients or engineering tolerance in the op amp
itself. This flexibility has made the op amp a popular building block in analog circuits.
The μA741, a popular early integrated op amp
Today, op amps are used widely in consumer, industrial, and scientific electronics. Many
standard integrated circuit op amps cost only a few cents; however, some integrated or hybrid
operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over US$100. Op
amps may be packaged as components or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.
The op amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other differential amplifier types include the
fully differential amplifier (an op amp with a differential rather than single-ended output), the
instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op amps), the isolation amplifier (with
galvanic isolation between input and output), and negative-feedback amplifier (usually built
from one or more op amps and a resistive feedback network).
Circuit diagram symbol for a representative op amp. Pins are labeled as listed above.
Operation
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+) with voltage V+ and an
inverting input (−) with voltage V−; ideally the op amp amplifies only the difference in voltage
between the two, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op
amp Vout is given by the equation
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜𝑙 (𝑉 + − 𝑉− )
where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the
absence of an external feedback loop from the output to the input).
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
There are thousands of advantages and few disadvantages of this PID controller. Some of them
are explain as follows.
-ADVANTAGES
1] It is easy to make.
2] There is no complicated wiring.
3] It has low maintenance.
4] It is small in size.
5] It has low energy consumption
-DISADVANTAGES
1] There is calculations is most important
APPLICATION AREA
Application area of this PID controller is very large. Few of them are explain as follows.
1] It is applicable at industry.
2] It is applicable at electronics laboratory.
3] It is applicable at engineering colleges at electronics department.
FUTURE MODIFICATION
It is possible to done many modification in the system few of them are explain as follows.
1] Here we develop PID controller circuit by using operational amplifier. It is possible to
develop circuit by using Arduino UNO. Or by using any other microcontroller circuit.
CONCLUSION
Modern process control systems cannot exist without PID controllers, all control functions
must be performed manually. Each proportional, integrated and derived control mode fulfills a
unique function, and the setting rules have been developed to ensure effective process control
for all types of loops and applications
REFERENCES
1) [Link]
2) [Link] [Link]
3)[Link]
applications/
4) [Link]
5) [Link]