The impedance in a circuit can be calculated using V(t) = 15 sin(314t + 5π/6) and i(t) = 5 sin(314t + 2π/3). First, find the phase difference ϕ = (5π/6) - (2π/3) = π/6. The impedance Z can be represented as a complex number where |Z| = V/I = 15/5 = 3 ohms, and the angle of the impedance φ is π/6 radians leading. Thus, the impedance in polar form is Z = 3∠π/6 ohms .

Power factor in industrial systems can be determined by measuring real and apparent power and calculating their ratio. Power factor meters, typically used in conjunction with current transformers, allow direct measurement. To improve power factor, techniques involve adding power factor correction capacitors to the network, reducing the amount of reactive power. Another method is to replace old equipment with more efficient models that inherently have better power factors or use synchronous condensers that provide reactive compensation while boosting grid stability. Regular maintenance and monitoring can also help maintain optimal power factor levels .

In a star-connected three-phase system, the line current (IL) is equal to the phase current (Iph), so IL = Iph. The line voltage (VL) is √3 times the phase voltage (Vph), so VL = √3 * Vph. These relationships are derived from the geometry of the star connection and the fact that line voltages are the vector sums of phase voltages .

The two wattmeter method measures the total power in a three-phase system by using two wattmeters connected to measure the power in different phases. In a star-connected load, the current flowing through the wattmeters is the line current, and the voltage is measured between the line and the neutral, or line to line in some setups. The total active power is the sum of the readings from the two wattmeters. The method works on the principle that the algebraic sum of the active power measured by the wattmeters in two of the phases equals the total power supplied to the load. The theoretical basis includes the relationship for line voltages and currents in star-connected systems, which can be proved to show that the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the total power using vectorial calculations .

The Q-factor or quality factor of a coil in an R-L circuit is a measure of its efficiency in terms of energy storage compared to energy dissipation. It is defined as the ratio of inductive reactance (XL = ωL) to resistance (R). The Q-factor indicates how underdamped an oscillator or resonator is, and higher Q-factors suggest lower energy losses relative to the stored energy at each cycle of oscillation. Higher Q signifies a narrower bandwidth and sharper peak in the response curve of the circuit .

To calculate active power (P), impedance (Z), and power factor (pf) in a circuit, one must begin with expressions for voltage and current, such as v = 141.4 sin(ωt - 2π/3) V and I = 7.07 sin(ωt - π/2) A. The active power is P = VI cos(ϕ) where ϕ is the phase difference between voltage and current; ϕ = (2π/3 - π/2) = -π/6. Therefore, P = 141.4 * 7.07 * cos(-π/6). Impedance Z is given by dividing the voltage magnitude by current magnitude |Z| = V/I = 141.4/7.07 ≈ 20 ohms with a phase angle from φ. The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference, pf = cos(ϕ). Using these calculations provides a comprehensive understanding of circuit dynamics .

For a delta-connected motor with an output of 18.65 kW at an efficiency of 0.87 and a power factor of 0.85, the input power (Pin) is calculated as Pin = Pout / efficiency = 18.65 kW / 0.87 = 21.44 kW. The formula P = √3 VL IL cosφ is used where P is power, VL is line voltage (400 V), IL is line current, and cosφ is power factor. Therefore, IL = P / (√3 VL cosφ) = 21.44 kW / (√3 * 400 * 0.85) = 36.5 A. Because the system is delta-connected, the phase current (Iph) equals IL/√3, thus Iph = 36.5 A / √3 ≈ 21.1 A .

The single wattmeter method measures power in a balanced three-phase delta or star connection by connecting the wattmeter in one phase. The total measured power is then multiplied by three (for three-phase systems) to get the total power. The relation for power factor (pf) is derived by using the formula: P = VL IL pf in case of balanced three-phase system, where P is the measured power, VL is the line voltage, and IL is the line current. The power factor can be determined from the ratio of real power to apparent power, pf = P / (√3 VL IL).

Star connections result in lower phase voltages (compared to line voltages) and are typically used when lower voltage applications are needed, such as in long-distance distribution systems or in circuits requiring a neutral for single-phase loads. Delta connections provide higher phase voltages, equal to line voltage, and are often used in applications requiring stable loads and strong power capability, such as short-distance, high current networks. Delta does not require a neutral and is thus not used for single-phase circuits. Each connection type optimizes performance based on the required application conditions .

In an AC circuit, real power (P) is the actual power consumed while reactive power (Q) accounts for the energy that cycles between the source and the reactive components in the network. Apparent power (S) is the vector sum of real and reactive power (S = √(P² + Q²)). The power factor is the cosine of the angle θ between the total current and voltage in the circuit and is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power (pf = P/S). A power factor close to 1 indicates a largely resistive load, while a lower power factor suggests more energy is cycling back and forth (reactive power), imposing a higher apparent power for the same real power draw .