Nuclear Reactors

Special Lectures by Prof Ramesh Narayanan

Course Coordinator: Prof. Snehasish Panigrahy
for ESL371 students, Semester II, 2023-2024
Material being used here is for academic purposes only, and is intended
only for students registered in IIT Delhi in Semester II, 2025-24, and is
not intended for wider circulation.
Primary Reference:
1. John R. Lamarsh and Anthony J. Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, (2nd or 3rd Edition], PHI, 3rd ed. : 2001
2. John Lilley, Nuclear Physics: Principles and Applications, Wiley Student Edition, 2007
3. “Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Systems”, Reactor Concepts Manual, USNRC Technical Training Center,
[Link]

Department of Energy Science and Engineering,

Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
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 Note for students of ESL371 (Semester II, 2023-2024):

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Importance of cross-sections
Interaction of Radiation with Matter:
Typical components interacting with surrounding matter within reactor:

 Neutrons
 Elastic Scattering (n, n)
 Inelastic Scattering (n, n’)
 Radiative Capture (n, )
 Charged Particle Interactions (n, ); (n, p)
 Neutron producing reactions (n, 2n) or (n,3n)
 Fission
 Charged Particles
 Alpha rays
 Beta rays
 Fission fragments
 Gamma-Ray Interactions:
 Photo-electric Effect
 Pair Production
 Compton Effect
Neutron Scattering:
If I(x) is the intensity of neutrons that have not
collided after penetrating a distance x into the
target,
Then the decrease in intensity [-dI(x)] of the
uncollided beam due to a collision after
traversing a subsequent distance of dx in the
target of unit area is given as:

−𝑑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝑁𝜎 𝐼 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = Σ 𝐼 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Fig: Neutrons Striking a Target

𝐼=𝐼 𝑒 =𝐼 𝑒 =𝐼 𝑒

where,
Σt  macroscopic total collision cross-section or
probability of interaction per path length
σt  microscopic total collision cross-section
λ  mean-free path traversed between two
neutron-target atom collisions

Fig: Measurement of neutrons that have not collided in a target.

Note: total cross-section (σt) is the sum of all possible
collision cross-sections possible in the given target
 Table 1: Uranium data for reactor calculations
Nucleus Density Fission Radiative Total Elastic Average number of neutrons
(gm/cm3) cross- capture absorption scattering cross- produced in a fission reaction, 
section, σf cross- cross- section, σs (b)
(b) section, σc section, σa
(b) (b)
235U 18.7 579 101 680 10 2.42
238U 18.9 --- 2.72 2.72 8.3 ---
natU 18.9 4.17 3.43 7.6 8.3 ---

Table 2: Properties of materials used as moderators

Material Molecular Density Elastic Total Logarithmic Slowing-
weight (gm/cm3) scattering absorption decrement Down Power,
cross-section, cross-section, factor, ξ SDP (m-1)
σs (b) σa (b)
H2 O 18.01 1.0 49.2 0.66 0.92 151
D2 O 20.02 1.1 10.6 0.001 0.509 18
Graphite 12.01 1.6 4.7 0.0045 0.158 6
 Table 3: Relevant estimates of cross-sections and logarithmic decrement
factors for fissile nuclei and the moderators used
Nuclide N σa σs Nσa Nσs ξ Nσsξ
natU 1 7.6 8.3 7.6 8.3 0.0084 0.07
O 6 0 3.8 0 22.8 0.12 2.74
S 1 0.52 1.1 0.52 1.1 0.061 0.07
D2 O 750 0.001 10.6 0.75 7950 0.509 4046.6
Total 8.87 7982.2 4049.4

Table 4: Values of  for fissile nuclei

Nucleus Thermal neutrons (25 meV) High-energy neutrons (0.5 MeV)
235U 2.06 2.35
239Pu 2.16 2.9
233U 2.29 2.4
Nuclear Reactor Schematic
Typical Nuclear Reactor  Principal Components:

Principal components of a nuclear reactor plant Flowchart of the Nuclear Steam Supply System Power Plant
Typical elements used for: Typical Materials used in sections:
A. Core: B. Between Core and Containment Section:
 Fuel Rods: Natural (0.7% by wt. 235U),  Blanket: Fertile materials such as 238U and 232Th
enriched Uranium (3% to 5% by wt. 235U),  Reflector: Thick moderating material (Graphite,
Thorium (232Th), Plutonium (239Pu), (233U) Beryllium, water and natural Uranium)
 Moderator: Water (2/3 of H); Heavy Water, Graphite.
rd
 Thermal Shield: Iron and Steel
Be and BeO also used but costlier.  Radiation Shield (Containment Structure): Lead, Concrete
 Coolant: H2O, D2O, Gases like He & CO2 (Thermal Reactors);
Liquid Sodium, pressurized gases like He (Fast Breeder Reactors)
 Control Rods: Boron Steel (high neutron absorption cross-section), Hafnium [Hf] and Cadmium [Cd] (strong thermal neutron absorbers), Silver,
Various alloys of these metals.
 Typical Functional Steps of a
Nuclear Reactor
(reference reactor used: PWR)
 A typical Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) plant schematic
MSR  Moisture Separator Re-heater
S/G  Steam Generator
PZR  Pressurizer
HP  High pressure
LP  Low Pressure
RHR  Residual Heat Removal
HX  Heat Exchanger
FW HTR  feed Water Heater

Ref: [Link]
Important sections in the overall functioning of a typical Reactor

 There are two major systems utilized to convert the heat generated in the fuel into electrical power for industrial
and residential use.
 The primary system transfers the heat from the fuel to the steam generator, where the secondary system
begins.
 The steam formed in the steam generator is transferred by the secondary system to the main turbine
generator, where it is converted into electricity.
 After passing through the low pressure turbine, the steam is routed to the main condenser.
 Cool water, flowing through the tubes in the condenser, removes excess heat from the steam, which allows the
steam to condense.
 The water is then pumped back to the steam generator for reuse.
 In order for the primary and secondary systems to perform their functions, there are approximately one hundred
support systems.
 In addition, for emergencies, there are dedicated systems to mitigate the consequences of accidents.

Ref: [Link]
Reactant Coolant System (RCS):

The primary system (also called the Reactor Coolant System or RCS) consists of
 the reactor vessel,
 the steam generators,
 the reactor coolant pumps,
 a pressurizer, and
 the connecting piping.

A reactor coolant loop is

 a reactor coolant pump,
 a steam generator,
 and the piping that connects these components to the reactor vessel.

Functions of RCS:
 The primary function of the reactor coolant system is to transfer the heat from the fuel to the steam generators.
 The second function is to contain any fission products that escape the fuel.

Ref: [Link]
Reactant Coolant System  Reactor Vessel:
The major components of the reactor vessel are the
 the vessel itself,
 the core barrel,
 the reactor core, and
 the upper internals package.

Reactor vessel:
 A typical PWR vessel is a cylindrical vessel with a hemispherical
bottom head and a removable hemispherical top head.
 The top head is removable to allow for the refueling of the
reactor.
 There will be one inlet (or cold leg) nozzle and one outlet (or hot
leg) nozzle for each reactor coolant system loop.
 The reactor vessel is constructed of a manganese molybdenum
steel, and all surfaces that come into contact with reactor
coolant are clad with stainless steel to increase corrosion
resistance.

Ref: [Link]
Reactant Coolant System  Reactor Vessel (Contd.):
Core Barrel:
 The core barrel slides down inside of the reactor vessel and
houses the fuel.
 Toward the bottom of the core barrel, there is a lower core
support plate on which the fuel assemblies sit.
 The core barrel and all of the lower internals actually hang
inside the reactor vessel from the internals support ledge.
 On the outside of the core barrel will be irradiation specimen
holders in which samples of the material used to manufacture
the vessel will be placed.
 At periodic time intervals, some of these samples will be
removed and tested to see how the radiation from the fuel has
affected the strength of the material.

Upper Internals Package:

 The upper internals package sits on top of the fuel.
 It contains the guide columns to guide the control rods when
they are pulled from the fuel.
 The upper internals package prevents the core from trying to
move up during operation due to the force from the coolant
flowing through the assemblies.
Ref: [Link]
Reactant Coolant System  Reactor Vessel (contd.):
The flow path for the reactor coolant through the reactor vessel would be:
 The coolant enters the reactor vessel at the inlet nozzle and hits against the core barrel.
 The core barrel forces the water to flow downward in the space between the reactor vessel
wall and the core barrel.
 After reaching the bottom of the reactor vessel, the flow is turned upward to pass through the
fuel assemblies.
 The coolant flows all around and through the fuel assemblies, removing the heat produced by
the fission process.
 The now hotter water enters the upper internals region, where it is routed out the outlet
nozzle and goes on to the steam generator.

Ref: [Link]
Reactant Coolant System  Chemical and Volume Control System (CVCS):
 The chemical and volume control system (CVCS) is a major
support system for the reactor coolant system (RCS).
 Some of the functions of the system are to:
 Purify the reactor coolant system using filters and
demineralizers,
 Add and remove boron as necessary, and
 Maintain the level of the pressurizer at the desired setpoint.
 A small amount of water is continuously routed through the
chemical and volume control system (called letdown).
 This provides a continuous cleanup of the reactor coolant
system which maintains the purity of the coolant and helps to
minimize the amount of radioactive material in the coolant.

 The reactor coolant pump seals prevent the leakage of primary coolant to the containment atmosphere.
 The chemical and volume control system provides seal injection to keep the seals cool and provide lubrication for
the seals.
 This water has been cooled by the heat exchangers and cleaned by the filters and demineralizers.
 There is also a path (not shown) to route the letdown flow to the radioactive waste system for processing and/or
disposal.
Ref: [Link]
Reactant Coolant System (contd.):
Steam Generator (S/G):
Inside of the steam generator, the hot reactor coolant flows inside of the many tubes. The secondary coolant, or feed-
water, flows around the outside of the tubes, where it picks up heat from the primary coolant. When the feed-water
absorbs sufficient heat, it starts to boil and form steam. the steam is piped to the main turbine, and the coolant is
routed to the suction of the reactor coolant pumps.

Reactor Coolant Pump (RCP):

The purpose of the reactor coolant pump is to provide forced primary coolant flow to remove the amount of heat being
generated by the fission process. Even without a pump, there would be natural circulation flow through the reactor.
However, this flow is not sufficient to remove the heat being generated when the reactor is at power. Natural
circulation flow is sufficient for heat removal when the plant is shutdown (not critical). The major components of a
reactor coolant pump are the motor, the hydraulic section, and the seal package.

Pressurizer (PZR):
The pressurizer is the component in the reactor coolant system which provides a means of controlling the system
pressure. Pressure is controlled by the use of electrical heaters, pressurizer spray, power operated relief valves, and
safety valves.
The pressurizer operates with a mixture of steam and water in equilibrium. If pressure starts to deviate from the
desired value, the various components will actuate to bring pressure back to the normal operating point. The cause of
the pressure deviation is normally associated with a change in the temperature of the reactor coolant system.
Ref: [Link]
 Secondary Turbine Building System {Nuclear Steam Supply System [NSSS]}:
 The major secondary systems of a typical pressurized water
reactor are the main steam system and the condensate / feed-
water system.

 Since the primary and secondary systems are physically

separated from each other (by the steam generator tubes), the
secondary system will contain little or no radioactive material.

 The main steam system starts at the outlet of the steam

generator.
 The steam is routed to the high pressure (HP) main turbine.
 After passing through the HP turbine, the steam is piped to
the moisture separator / re-heaters (MSRs).
 In the MSRs, the steam is dried with moisture separators
and reheated using other steam as a heat source.
 From the MSRs, the steam goes to the low pressure (LP)
turbines.
 After passing through the LP turbines, the steam goes to
the main condenser, which is operated at a vacuum to allow
for the greatest removal of energy by the LP turbines.
 The steam is condensed into water by the flow of circulating
water through the condenser tubes.

Ref: [Link]
Secondary Turbine Building System {Nuclear Steam Supply System [NSSS]} (Contd.):
 At this point, the condensate/feed-water system starts:
 The condensed steam collects in the hot-well area of the main condenser.
 The condensate pumps take a suction on the hot-well to increase the pressure of the water.
 The condensate then passes through a cleanup system to remove any impurities in the water.
 This is necessary because the steam generator acts as a concentrator.
 If the impurities are not removed, they will be left in the steam generator after the steam forming process, and
this could reduce the heat transfer capability of the steam generator and/or damage the steam generator tubes.
 The condensate then passes through some low pressure feed-water heaters.
 The temperature of the condensate is increased in the heaters by using steam from the low pressure turbine
(extraction steam).
 The condensate flow then enters the suction of the main feed-water pumps, which increases the pressure of the
water high enough to enter the steam generator.
 The feed-water now passes through a set of high pressure feed-water heaters, which are heated by extraction
steam from the high pressure turbine (heating the feed-water helps to increase the efficiency of the plant).
 The flow rate of the feed-water is controlled as it enters the steam generators.
Ref: [Link]
Normal Plant Operation:

 During normal operation, the heat produced

by the fission process is removed by the
reactor coolant and transferred to the
secondary coolant in the steam generators.

 Here, the secondary coolant is boiled into

steam and sent to the main turbine.

 Even after the reactor has been shutdown,

there is a significant amount of heat
produced by the decay of fission products
(decay heat).

 The amount of heat produced by decay

heat is sufficient to cause fuel damage if not
removed.

Ref: [Link]
Auxiliary Building Systems  RCS (Shutdown and Maintenance):
 Systems must be designed and installed in the plant to remove the decay from the core and transfer that heat to the
environment, even in a shutdown plant condition.

 During maintenance on reactor coolant system components, the temperature and pressure of the reactor coolant
system must be reduced low enough to allow personnel access to the equipment.

 The auxiliary feed-water system and the steam dump system (turbine bypass valves) work together to allow the
operators to remove the decay heat from the reactor.
 The auxiliary feed-water system pumps water from the condensate storage tank to the steam generators.
 This water is allowed to boil to make steam.
 The steam can then be dumped to the main condenser through the steam dump valves.
 The circulating water will then condense the steam and take the heat to the environment.

 If the steam dump system is not available (for example, no circulating water for the main condenser), the steam can
be dumped directly to the atmosphere through the atmospheric relief valves.

 By using either method of steam removal, the heat is being removed from the reactor coolant system, and the
temperature of the reactor coolant system can be reduced to the desired level.

Ref: [Link]
Auxiliary Building System RCS (Shutdown and  At some point, the decay heat being produced
will not be sufficient to generate enough steam in
Maintenance) [Contd.]: the steam generators to continue the cool down.

 When the reactor coolant system (RCS)

pressure and temperature have been reduced to
within the operational limits, the residual heat
removal system (RHR) will be used to continue
the cool down by removing heat from the core
and transferring it to the environment.

 This is accomplished by routing some of the

reactor coolant through the RHR system heat
exchanger, which is cooled by the component
cooling water system (CCW).

 The heat removed by the CCW system is

then transferred to the service water (SW)
system in the CCW heat exchanger.
 The heat picked up by the SW system will be
transferred directly to the environment from
the SWr system.

 The RHR system can be used to cool the plant

down to a low enough temperature that
personnel can perform any maintenance
Ref: [Link] functions, including refueling.
Design considerations for bare reactor
Diffusion Equations:
From Continuity Equation:
[Rate of change in neutron numbers within volume V] = [Rate of production of neutrons in volume V] –
[rate of absorption of neutrons in volume V] –
[rate of leakage of neutrons from volume V]

𝜕𝑛
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑆𝑑𝑉 − Σ 𝜙𝑑𝑉 − 𝐽⃗ 𝑒 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡
which gives, the general time-dependent diffusion equation for a nuclear reactor as:
+ 𝛻 𝐽⃗ = S - Σ 𝜙
Under steady state conditions:
𝛻 𝐽⃗ + Σ 𝜙 - S = 0
where,
n  number of neutrons per unit volume or neutron density
S  rate of neutron production per unit volume
a  macroscopic absorption cross-section (=Na)
a  microscopic absortion cross-section
N  Target Material (atom/molecule) number density
 neutron flux at any given location within a specified volume, expressed as neutrons per unit area per unit time
a  Rate of neutron loss per unit volume
𝐽 = 𝐽⃗ 𝑒  is the net number of neutrons which pass per unit time through a unit area perpendicular to the direction of flow,
also expressed as neutrons per unit area per unit time (but is a vector quantity)
Diffusion Equations (contd.):
Under steady state conditions:

𝛻 𝐽⃗ + Σ 𝜙 - S = 0

From Fick’s Law:

𝐽⃗ = −𝐷
Type equation [Link], Typical values of D for thermal neutrons:
D  Diffusion coefficient = tr/3 (units of length) 𝐷 = 0.16 𝑐𝑚
tr  Transport mean free path = 1/tr
𝐷 = 0.87 𝑐𝑚
tr  macroscopic transport cross-section (=Ntr) = 𝑠(1 − 𝜇̅ )
𝐷 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚
tr  microscopic transport cross-section
s  macroscopic scattering cross-section (=Ns) 𝐷 [ ] = 0.84 𝑐𝑚

s  microscopic scattering cross-section

𝜇̅  average value of the cosine angle at which neutrons are scattered in the medium
Thus, the steady state neutron diffusion equation becomes:
𝐷𝛻 𝜙 − Σ 𝜙 + S = 0
𝜙 𝑆
𝑜𝑟, 𝛻 𝜙 − =−
𝐿 𝐷
where,
L  is the Diffusion Length
L2  is the Diffusion Area = a/D (units of [length]2)
Factors Contributing to basic design of a reactor:
1.   Average number of neutrons produced in a fission reaction, of which some would be absorbed in fuel to cause fission
2. -factor  For each thermal neutron absorbed in fuel, a number () of fast neutrons are produced.
𝜎
𝜂=𝜈×
𝜎 +𝜎
3. Fast Fission factor ()  Increase in the number of neutrons due to some fast neutrons causing fission before they are slowed
down. Usually most thermal reactors are dilute reactors in which ratio of moderator to fuel atoms are large and hence less
likely for fast neutrons to cause fission. So, for all practical purposes, =1 generally
4. Resonance Escape probability (p)  The probability that a neutron will avoid resonance capture by 238U. This is an important
factor because fast neutrons loose energy mainly by scattering off moderator atoms and as they slow down, a fraction is
captured by 238U, particularly in the resonance region about 10 to 100 eV.
.
2.73 𝑁
p = exp −
𝜉 Σ
5. Logarithmic Energy Decrement (<>) It is the average value of the natural logarithm of the ratio of the incident energy (E0)
to the neutron energy after first collision (E1)
𝐸 𝐸 𝐴−1 𝐴−1
𝜉 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐸 𝑃 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 1 + 𝑙𝑛 ; 𝐴=𝑀 𝑚
2𝐴 𝐴+1
6. Thermal Utilization factor (f)  the fraction of neutrons that are not absorbed by moderator but back into the fuel
Σ 𝐹
𝑓=
Σ 𝐶
7. Leakage factors (lf, ls)fraction of neutrons that will leak out of the reactor: that of fast neutrons (lf) and thermal neutrons (ls)
Neutron Multiplication factor:

Four-factor formula:
When one considers an infinite reactor, one will have no leakages
Bare Reactor Design Considerations:
One can represent source factor in terms of multiplication factor:

 Consider an infinite reactor having same composition as bare dilute reactor

 Such a configuration would prevent escape of neutrons as there would have been from the
surface of a bare reactor (ls=lf=0).
 Concentration of moderator atoms is much higher than that of fuel atoms (=1)
 All neutrons eventually absorbed, either in moderator or coolant
 Further the neutron flux must be constant, independent of position.
 Also assume, that the neutron energies in the resonance region of fuel atoms not present (p=1)

Reactor Design Source factor representation:

When one considers an infinite bare reactor (dilute core with fuel and moderator only) then the
source factor can be represented in terms of multiplication factor as:
One-Group Reactor Equation:

=
One-Group Reactor Equation  Infinite Slab Reactor:
Using Boundary Conditions:
1. No net current flowing across x = 0, hence J(x) = 0  (x) is symmetric

2. Flux at the edge of the reactor is zero (assuming d << a/2 is small):

3. The power delivered by the reactor is P for fission reactions having macroscopic cross-
sections, Σf, and recoverable energy, ER.

Solving the one-group reactor equation one gets:

Solutions for One-Group Reactor Equation for different geometries of a bare core reactor:
Similarly solutions for the one-group reactor equation for different geometries of a bare
core of a given nuclear reactor is provided in table below.
TABLE: BUCKLINGS, B2, AND FLUXES FOR CRITICAL BARE R EACTORS (ASSUMING d IS SMALL)

𝚽𝒎𝒂𝒙
Geometry Dimensions Buckling (B2) Flux () A 𝛀= 𝚽𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝜋 𝜋𝑥 1.57𝑃
Infinite slab Thickness (a) 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1.57
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎𝐸 Σ
Length (a), 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑦 𝜋𝑧
3.87𝑃
Rectangular 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠
Breadth (b), + + 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 3.88
Parallelepiped 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝐸 Σ
Width (c)

Infinite 2.405 2.405𝑟 0.738𝑃

Radius (R) 𝐴𝐽 2.32
cylinder 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐸 Σ

Radius (R), . 2.405𝑟 𝜋𝑧 3.63𝑃

Finite cylinder + 𝐴𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3.64
Height (H) 𝑅 𝐻 𝑉𝐸 Σ
𝜋 1 𝜋𝑟 𝑃
Sphere Radius (R) 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3.29
𝑅 𝑟 𝑅 4𝑅 𝐸 Σ
Removal Cross-sections:
If G(r) be the flux at the distance r from a point
fission source emitting one fission neutron per sec
isotropically, then this function is known as the point
water kernel.
The flux at the distance x from the center of a fission
plate of radius R emitting neutrons per cm2/sec is
given by:

Fig.: Experimental arrangement for measuring the attenuation of fission ∅ 𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑆 𝐺(𝑟)𝑧𝑑𝑧
neutrons in water to compute removal cross-section
where, z is the distance from the center of the disc to a
In the absence of shield the un-collided net ring of width dz emitting 2πSzdz neutrons/sec. By
flux arriving at point P, from the annular ring inverting this integral, G(r) can be found from
of radius z and thickness dz is: measured values of 4J(x), giving:
2𝜋𝑧𝑑𝑧𝑆𝑒 𝐴𝑒
𝑑∅ = 𝐺 𝑟 =
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
In the presence of a shield this net flux
And the net flux arriving at point P, through a shield
would be impeded by the collisions within
thickness t, is given as:
the shield resulting in neutrons losing
Fig.: Isotropic planar source energies and moving to lower energy levels, ∅ 𝑥 = 𝑆𝐺 𝑟 𝑒
behind slab shield which can be represented by an effective
removal cross-section ΣR.
Table: Removal Cross-sections
Neutron Radiation Shielding model for a spherical core:
Radiation shield

Thermal Shield
Reflector
Blanket

Core

Fig.: Spherical reactor core surrounded by a spherical shield

𝑟 = 𝑅 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑅 − 𝑅 + 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝑆𝐴𝑒 ( ) 𝑆𝐴𝑒 ( )
𝑑∅ 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
n(r) is the total number of removal mean free paths from dV to P

𝑅
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑅+𝑎
Fig.: Estimation of rmax and max
Neutron Radiation Shielding model for a spherical core [contd.]:
𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑓Σ 𝑟 + 1−𝑓 Σ 𝑟 +Σ 𝑟 = 1−𝑓 Σ + 𝑓Σ 𝑟+ Σ − 1−𝑓 Σ − 𝑓Σ 𝑟 = 𝛼𝑟 + 𝛽𝑟

using, rc =r - rs
where,
ΣRm  macroscopic removal cross-section of metal
ΣRw  macroscopic removal cross-section of water
ΣRs  macroscopic removal cross-section of shield
f  is the volume fraction of metal in the core mixture of metal and water

𝑆𝐴
∅(𝑃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑒 𝑑𝑟
2

𝑆𝐴
∅(𝑃) = 𝑒 −𝑒 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝛼

Usually in nuclear reactors one can consider a small core with a thick shield, allowing:
𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 ; 𝜃 ≅ ; 𝑟 ≅𝑎; 𝑟 ≅ 2𝑅 + 𝑎
𝑅+𝑎
Hence:
𝑆𝐴 𝑅
∅(𝑃) = 𝑒 1−𝑒
4𝛼 𝑅 + 𝑎
Atomic Energy Regularity Board (AERB) dose regulations:
Dose Limitations
Part of the body Occupational Exposure Public Exposure
Whole body 20 mSv/year averaged over 5 consecutive years; 1 mSv/y
(Effective dose) 30 mSv in any single year
Lens of eyes 150 mSv in a year 15 mSv/y
(Equivalent dose)
Skin 500 mSv in a year 50 mSv/y
(Equivalent dose)
Extremities (Hands and Feet) 500 mSv in a year -
Equivalent dose
For pregnant radiation workers, after declaration of pregnancy 1 mSv on the embryo/fetus should not exceed.

where,
Occupational Exposure - Radiation Exposure to worker involved in a practice in which he/she is exposed due to
handling of radioactive source or radiation generating equipment.
Public Exposure - Radiation Exposure to public due to above practices
Major Coolant activations possibilities:
Sr Reaction Cross- Half-life Energy of radiation Endothermic Threshold Remarks
No section (Secs/hrs) [MeV] / Exothermic Energy
(barns) [MeV]
1 16O (n, p) 16N 1.9  10-5 7.1 secs 6.13, 7.12 (-rays) Endothermic 10.2
2 17O (n, p) 17N 5.2  10-6 4.14 secs 1.2; 0.43 (neutrons) Endothermic 8.5 This peculiar reaction also leads to the
emission of neutrons as 95% of the -
decays of 17N go to excited states of
17O having energies > Binding Energy
(B.E.) of the last neutron of this
nucleus  decays to 16O with a
neutron release

3 18O (n, ) 19O 2.1  10-4 29 secs 0.2, 1.36 (-rays) Exothermic All energies This is a lesser important source as
compared to the first reaction, partly
because the isotopic abundance of
18O [0.204%] is low as compared to
that of 16O [99.8%] with the emitted
-rays also less energetic.

4 23Na (n,) 24Na 0.53 15.0 hrs 2.75, 1.37 (-rays) All energies Only reaction as Na consists of 23Na
isotopes only with both -rays being
emitted in cascade

5 40Ar (n, ) 41Ar 0.66 1.83 hrs 1,29 (-rays) This reaction is present as Ar is present
to the extent of 1.3% wt. of air and will
be present in small amounts in CO2
when used as coolant in some
reactors.
Coolant Activation Basic Model:
For a unit volume of coolant leaving the reactor, if its activity at this point is a, then at the time
to later, when it re-enters the reactor, its activity will have fallen to:
𝛼𝑒
where λ is the decay constant. In passing through the reactor, the already activated atoms
continue to decay by the amount

𝛼𝑒

In the reactor, however, a unit volume, exposed to an average flux av, acquires in the time ti
the additional activity
Σ Φ 1−𝑒
where Σact is the average macroscopic activation cross-section in the flux av. In equilibrium,
Fig: A simple Coolant circuit after the coolant has made many passes around the circuit, this activity must be equal to α
𝛼 = 𝛼𝑒 +Σ Φ 1−𝑒
Thus the activity of the coolant leaving the reactor-the point where the activity is the highest is given by
Σ Φ 1−𝑒
⇒ 𝛼=
1−𝑒
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝛼 = Σ Φ for ti, to << activity half-life, t1/2 = ln 2/ λ
𝑡 +𝑡
Types of Reactors
Light Water Reactor (LWR)  Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

1) The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.

2) Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to
the steam generator.
3) Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop
vaporizes the water in a secondary loop, producing steam.
4) The steamline directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to
turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity.
[Link] 5) PWRs contain between 150-200 fuel assemblies.
Light Water Reactor (LWR)  Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

1) The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.

2) A steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water
(reactor coolant) moves upward through the core, absorbing
heat.
3) The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters
the two stages of moisture separation where water droplets are
removed before the steam is allowed to enter the steam-line.
4) The steam-line directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it
to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity.
[Link] 5) BWRs contain between 370-800 fuel assemblies
Heavy Water Reactor (HWR)

 The heavy water reactor differs from a light water

reactor in the fuel, moderator, coolant, and core design.
 The heavy water reactor core is oriented horizontally
inside a tank which composed of fuel channels.
 There are two concentric tubes in each fuel channel:
the Calandria tube and the pressure tube.
 The reactors are refueled during operation, utilizing
natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as the coolant
and moderator.
 The heat is interchanged between the primary and
secondary loop in a heat exchanger.
[Link]
Heavy Water Reactor Advantages

 Using heavy water as the moderator, the pressurized heavy water reactor enables the application of natural
uranium as the fuel in the structure of ceramic UO2. It means that it can be run without the need for expensive
uranium enrichment equipment.

 The mechanical design of the pressurized heavy water reactors places most of the moderators at lower
temperatures. Thus, it is an arrangement more efficient than in traditional designs, with the moderator normally
much hotter. These properties mean that a pressurized heavy water reactor can utilize natural uranium and other
fuels more efficiently than light water reactors.

Heavy Water Reactor Disadvantages

 Pressurized heavy water reactor has some drawbacks. The cost of heavy water generally is hundreds of dollars per
kilogram, albeit it is a trade-off against lessened fuel costs. The decreased energy content of natural uranium
compared to enriched uranium requires more frequent fuel replacement; this is usually performed using an on-
power refueling system.

 Increasing the rate of fuel movement within the reactor also leads to an increase in volumes of consumed fuel than
in light water reactors using enriched uranium. Because unenriched uranium fuel collects a lower density of fission
products than enriched uranium fuel, it generates less heat and provides more compact storage.
Basics of Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)
 Gas cooled reactors utilize graphite as a neutron moderator and carbon dioxide as the coolant.

 The AGR was designed so that the final conditions of steam at the boiler stop valve were equal to that of
conventional coal-fired power plants. Therefore the same design of turbo-generator could be applied.

 These reactors apply natural or somewhat enriched uranium as fuel.

 Carbon dioxide circulates inside the core, absorbs the heat from the fuel parts, and reaches 650 °C.

 It then flows to the heat exchangers located outside of the pressure vessel of the reactor concrete.

 These are of the gas-to-water heat exchanger types that use the once-through fundamental to boil the
flowing water.

 The water is then applied in the conventional steam cycle.

First generation of the gas cooled reactors
 The first Magnox plant had been run for plutonium production, so it had characteristics that were not the most
economical for electricity generation.
Second generation of the gas cooled reactors

 Herein, the steam generators are installed inside the concrete pressure vessel, which needs a much larger
structure and, therefore, more capital costs.
[Link]
Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGCR) [Link] tubes
[Link] rods
[Link] moderator
[Link] assemblies
[Link] pressure vessel and radiation shielding
[Link] circulator
[Link]
[Link] circulator
[Link] exchanger
[Link]

[Link]
High temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGR) & Very High temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (VHTR)
 The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a type
of high-temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGRs) that,
in concept, can reach high outlet temperatures, up to
1000 °C.

 There are two principal types of HTGRs:

 Pebble Bed Reactors (PBRs): The pebble bed
reactor contains fuel in the form of pebbles that
are placed in a cylindrical pressure vessel.
 Prismatic Block Reactors (PMRs): The prismatic
block reactor has a configuration of prismatic
block core, in which hexagonal graphite blocks are
placed in a cylindrical pressure vessel.

 Both reactors may put the fuel in an annulus section

with a graphite center spire, according to the design
and desired power of the reactor.

 Advanced High-Temperature Gas Cooled Reactors (HTGRs) employ helium as a coolant.

 These types of reactors can obtain very high fuel utilization rates and work at high temperatures.

 They also generate process heat used in hydrogen production and low-temperature applications,
including seawater desalination and district heating.
[Link]
Advantages of Gas Cooled Reactors over Water Cooled Reactors

 Gas cooled reactors present potential operational and safety advantages over water cooled reactors. A principal
operational motivation for working on this technology is enhanced energy conversion efficiency provided by a higher
reactor operating temperature.
 For example, water cooled reactors have a possible maximum temperature limit of around 350°C, which allows
a conversion efficiency (the ratio of output electricity to heat) of about 32–34%.
 In comparison, a GCR can run at temperatures up to 800–850°C and yield a heat-to-electricity conversion
efficiency of more than 40% using conventional steam turbine facilities or as high as 50% using a more
advanced gas turbine apparatus.

 From the safety perspective, gas cooled reactors usually employ lower core power density and higher heat capacity
core, supporting the limited fuel temperatures after a loss-of-coolant accident.

 Since they use various forms of fuel and cladding, they avoid chemical reactions of steam/zirconium cladding which
can release explosive hydrogen gas under unintended conditions in light water reactors. In addition, unlike
conventional PWRs and BWRs, some gas cooled reactor designs have the ability to be refueled during the full-
power performance, which presents some operational advantage and higher plant availability.

 Some gas cooled reactors have been constructed and operated using either carbon dioxide gas or helium for the
reactor core cooling.

 The application of graphite neutron moderators in commercial gas cooled reactors leads to the absorption of fewer
neutrons compared to water-moderated reactors.
[Link]
 Reactor Safety Protocols
(reference reactor used: PWR)
 Levels of the International Nuclear Event Scale: For prompt communication of safety significance
Off-Site Impact, release of
Level, Descriptor On-Site Impact Defence-in-Depth Degradation Examples
radioactive materials
7, Major Release: Chernobyl, Ukraine, 1986 (fuel meltdown and fire);
Major Accident Widespread health and Fukushima Daiichi 1-3, 2011 (fuel damage, radiation
environmental effects release and evacuation)
6 Significant Release: Mayak at Ozersk, Russia, 1957 'Kyshtym' (reprocessing
Serious Accident Full implementation of local plant criticality)
emergency plans
5 Limited Release: Severe damage to reactor Three Mile Island, USA, 1979 (fuel melting);
Accident with Off-Site Partial implementation of local core or to radiological barriers Windscale, UK, 1957 (military)
Consequences emergency plans, or
4 Minor Release: Significant damage to reactor Saint-Laurent A1, France, 1969 (fuel rupture) & A2 1980
Accident Mainly in Public exposure of the order of core or to radiological (graphite overheating);
Installation, with local prescribed limits, or barriers; worker fatality Tokai-mura, Japan, 1999 (criticality in fuel plant for an
consequences. experimental reactor).
either of:
3 Very Small Release: Major contamination; Acute Near Accident: Fukushima Daiichi 4, 2011 (fuel pond overheating);
Serious Incident Public exposure at a fraction of health effects to a worker, or Loss of Defence in Depth provisions - Fukushima Daini 1, 2, 4, 2011 (interruption to cooling);
any of: prescribed limits, or no safety layers remaining Vandellos, Spain, 1989 (turbine fire);
Davis-Besse, USA, 2002 (severe corrosion);
Paks, Hungary 2003 (fuel damage)
2 nil Significant spread of Incidents with significant failures in
Incident contamination; Overexposure safety provisions
of worker, or
1 nil nil Anomaly beyond authorised
Anomaly operating regime
0 nil nil No safety significance
Deviation
Below Scale nil nil No safety relevance

Source: International Atomic Energy Agency (Webpage: [Link]

 In avoiding major accidents the nuclear industry has been
very successful. In the 60-year history of civil nuclear power
generation, with over 18,500 cumulative reactor-years
across 36 countries, there have been only three significant
accidents at nuclear power plants:

•Three Mile Island (USA 1979) where the reactor was

severely damaged but radiation was contained and there
were no adverse health or environmental consequences.

•Chernobyl (Ukraine 1986) where the destruction of the

reactor by steam explosion and fire killed two people initially
plus a further 28 from radiation poisoning within three
months, and had significant health and environmental
consequences.

•Fukushima Daiichi (Japan 2011) where three old reactors

(together with a fourth) were written off after the effects of
loss of cooling due to a huge tsunami were inadequately
contained. There were no deaths or serious injuries due to
radioactivity, though about 19,500 people were killed by the
tsunami.

Of all the accidents and incidents, only the Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents resulted in radiation doses to the public greater
than those resulting from the exposure to natural sources. The Fukushima accident resulted in some radiation exposure of workers at
the plant, but not such as to threaten their health, unlike Chernobyl. Other incidents (and one 'accident') have been completely
confined to the plant.

Source Webpage: [Link]

 Power Water Reactor Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA) Engineered a. Reactor trip (RT)--to stop the
Safety Feature (ESF) Functions fission process and terminate
core power generation.
[Link] core cooling (ECC)--
to cool the core, thereby keeping
the release of radioactivity from the
fuel into the containment at
low levels.
c. Post accident radioactivity
removal (PARR)--to remove
radioactivity released from the core
to the containment atmosphere.
[Link] accident heat removal
(PAHR)--to remove decay heat
from within the containment,
thereby preventing over-
pressurization of the containment
e. Containment integrity (CI)--to
prevent radioactivity within the
containment from being dispersed
into the environment.
Ref: Lynn E. Weaver, A REVIEW OF ACCIDENT RISKS IN LIGHT-WATER-COOLED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS, Nuclear Power Safety, 303-349, (1976); doi: [Link]
Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS):
There are two purposes of the Emergency Core Cooling Systems (ECCS):

 The first is to provide core cooling to minimize fuel damage following a loss of coolant accident. This is
accomplished by the injection of large amounts of cool, borated water into the reactor coolant system.

 The second is to provide extra neutron poisons to ensure the reactor remains shutdown following the cool down
associated with a main steam line rupture, which is accomplished by the use of the same borated water source.
This water source is called the refueling water storage tank (RWST).

 To perform this function of injection of large quantities of borated water, the ECCS) consists of four separate
systems. In order of highest pressure to lowest pressure, these systems are:

 the high pressure injection (or charging) system,

 the intermediate pressure injection system,
 the cold leg accumulators, and
 the low pressure injection system (residual heat removal).

 Each of these systems have two pumps each that are capable of providing sufficient flow. Also, these systems
must be able to operate when the normal supply of power is lost to the plant.

 For this reason, these systems are powered from the plant emergency (diesel generators) power system.

Ref: [Link]
Typical PWR Emergency Core Cooling
System (ECCS) components.
 The low pressure injection system residual
heat removal [RHR]) is designed to inject
water from the refueling water storage tank
into the reactor coolant system during large
breaks, which would cause a very low reactor
coolant system pressure.

 In addition, the RHR system has a feature

that allows it to take water from the
containment sump, pump it through the
residual heat removal system heat exchanger
for cooling, and then send the cooled water
back to the reactor for core cooling.

 The latter is a method of cooling that will be

used when the Refuelling Water Storage
Tank (RWST) goes empty after a large
primary system break. This is called the long
term core cooling or recirculation mode.
Ref:
1. Randall J. Belles, Key reactor system components in integral pressurized water reactors (iPWRs), Handbook of small modular nuclear reactors, 2nd ed., Woodhead
Publishing Series in Energy, 95-115 (2021)
2. [Link]
Typical PWR Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS) components (Contd.):
 The intermediate pressure injection system is also designed for emergencies in which the primary pressure stays
relatively high, such as small to intermediate size primary breaks. Upon an emergency start signal, the pumps will
take water from the refueling water storage tank and pump it into the reactor coolant system.

 The high pressure injection system uses the pumps in the chemical and volume control system.
 Upon receipt of an emergency actuation signal, the system will automatically realign to take water from the
refueling water storage tank and pump it into the reactor coolant system.

 The high pressure injection system is designed to provide water to the core during emergencies in which
reactor coolant system pressure remains relatively high (such as small break in the reactor coolant system,
steam break accidents, and leaks of reactor coolant through a steam generator tube to the secondary side).

 The cold leg accumulators do not require electrical power to operate:

 These tanks contain large amounts of borated water with a pressurized nitrogen gas bubble in the top.

 If the pressure of the primary system drops below low enough, the nitrogen will force the borated water out of
the tank and into the reactor coolant system.

 These tanks are designed to provide water to the reactor coolant system during emergencies in which the
pressure of the primary drops very rapidly, such as large primary breaks.

Ref: [Link]
Containment Building:

 As shown earlier, the reactor coolant system is located inside the containment building.

 Containments are designed to withstand the pressures and temperatures that would accompany a high energy fluid
(primary coolant, steam, or feed-water) release into the building.

 However, exposure to high temperature and pressure over a long period of time would tend to degrade the concrete.
If a break occurred in the primary system, the coolant that is released into the containment building would contain
radioactive material (fission products). If the concrete developed any cracks, the high pressure in the containment
would tend to force the radioactive material out of the containment and into the environment.

 To limit the leakage out of containment following an accident, there is a steel liner that covers the inside surface of
the containment building. This liner acts as a vapor proof membrane to prevent any gas from escaping through any
cracks that may develop in the concrete.

 There are also two systems designed with the purpose of reducing containment temperature and pressure after an
accident in the containment building.
 The fan cooler system circulates the air through heat exchangers to accomplish the cooling.
 The second system is the containment spray system.

Ref: [Link]
Containment Spray System:  Upon the occurrence of either a secondary break or
primary break inside the containment building, the
containment atmosphere would become filled with
steam.

 To reduce the pressure and temperature of the

building, the containment spray system is
automatically started. The containment spray pump
will take a suction from the refueling water storage
tank and pump the water into spray rings located in
the upper part of the containment.

 The water droplets, being cooler than the steam, will

remove heat from the steam, which will cause the
steam to condense. This will cause a reduction in the
pressure of the building and will also reduce the
temperature of the containment atmosphere (similar
to the operation of the pressurizer).

 Like the residual heat removal (RHR) system, the

containment spray system has the capability to take
water from the containment sump if the refueling
water storage tank goes empty.
Ref: [Link]