ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system, can be divided into central,

 Corollary – is that damage to a specific part of the brain
peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems
causes predictable symptoms that enable a clinician to
Central Nervous System - consists of the brain and spinal cord
Covered by three membranes: establish the anatomical location of the problem
1. Dura Mater – outer membrane
2. Arachnoid Mater – middle membrane CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
3. Pia Mater – inner membrane
 Nuclei – group of aggregations in the CNS, neurons that The neuron doctrine first asserted that the nervous system
share similar function is composed of many individual signaling units, the
 Central Nervous System can be divided into: neurons
1. Gray Matter - contains neuron cell bodies
2. White Matter - rich in myelin  Camillo Golgi – silver impregnation method “the black
Peripheral Nervous System – consists of those parts in the reaction”
nervous system that lie outside the dura mater.  Schleiden and Schwann- nucleated cell is the
 Afferent Nerves – sensory nerves that carry messages fundamental unit of structure and function in both
from the periphery to the CNS animals and plants.
 Efferent Nerves – motor nerves that carry messages  Heinrich von Waldeyer – referred to the individual cells
from the CNS to peripheral tissues in the brain as neurons.
Autonomic Nervous system - regulates and controls visceral
functions, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, temperature Nerve Cells have four specialized regions: Cell body,
regulation, and reproductive function. dendrites and axon, and presynaptic terminals
 Composed of parts of the CNS and PNS
 Visceral Control – is achieved by reflex arcs that consist The shape and organelle composition of these domains depends
of visceral afferent (sensory) neurons that send strongly on their cytoskeleton which consists of fibrillary
messages from the periphery to the CNS that receives structures:
this input, and visceral motor output. 1. Neurofilaments (intermediate filaments)
2. Microtubules
3. Thin filaments
Cytoskeleton - is dynamic and imbues axon and dendrites with
the capacity to change shape, a plasticity believed to participate
in the synaptic alterations associated with learning and memory.

 Cell Body
- “perikaryon”, portion of cell surrounding the
nucleus.
- Contains endoplasmic reticular membrane and
Golgi complex
- Responsible for neuronal housekeeping functions;
the synthesis and processing of proteins
 Dendrites
- Tapering processes of variable complexity that
arise from the cell body
- Receives information
Each of the nervous system has unique nerve cells and a - Composed of receptors that bind and respond to
neurotransmitters
different function
- Chemical message is translated by membrane
Nervous tissue is composed of neuron and neuroglial cells receptors into an electrical or biochemical event
 Neurons - vary in their structure, but they all share that influences the state of excitability or function of
certain features that tailor them for the unique purpose the receiving neuron.
of electrical communication. - Its cytoplasm contains dense networks of
 Neuroglial cells – “glia”, are not primary signaling cells microtubules as well as extension of the
and have variable structures that are suited for their endoplasmic reticulum
diverse functions.  Axon

11
Human brain – contains 10 neurons and slightly more - Message-sending portion of the neuron
glial cells. - Thin, does not taper, can extend for a meter

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 - Self-reliant in energy metabolism, taking up glucose changes on certain patterns of prior activity. It is
and oxygen to produce ATP believed to underlie learning and memory
- Growth Cones – tips of developing or regenerating
axons The cytoskeleton helps compartmentalize the neuron and
- Axon hillock – its point of origin is a tapered region provides the tracks along which material travels between
- Initial segment – (spike initiation zone) distal to the different parts of the neuron
cone-shaped hillock is an untampered,
unmyelinated region. It is where the action potential  Dendrites – are tapered, limited length, and contains
normally arises. neurotransmitter receptor
- Axoplasm – its cytoplasm, packed with parallel 
+
Axon – very long, have high density of Na channel.
arrays of microtubules and neurofilaments that  Dendrites and cell body contains messenger RNA,
provide structural stability and to rapidly convey ribosomes, Golgi apparatus
materials back and forth between the cell body and  Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) together with
the axon terminus microtubules – plays important roles in dictating the
- Oligodendrocytes – glial cells, contribute to the vectorial transport of organelles and proteins.
axon integrity - Two major types of MAP are found in brain:
- Myelin – some axons have myelin for electrical 1. High Molecular weight proteins:
insulation. MAP-2 (most abundant in dendrites, assists in
- Non-myelinated axon – action potential travels dendrite formation) and MAP-1
down to the axon by continuous propagation 2. Low molecular weight proteins:
- Myelinated axon – action potential jumps from one Tau proteins – confined to axons; prevents
node of Ranvier (space between myelin segments) formation of axon without altering formation of
to another in a process called Saltatory conduction, dendrites.
greatly speeds impulse conduction. - Neurofibrillary tangles – hallmark of Alzheimer
 Presynaptic Terminals disease, are pathological aggregates assembled by
- Where axons terminate in multiple endings Hyperphosphorylated tau proteins
- Designed for rapid conversion of the neuron’s  Polarization of microtubules helps to create remarkable
electrical signal into a chemical signal morphological and functional divisions in neurons.
- Synaptic Transmission – when an action potential - Axons – microtubules assemble with their plus ends
reaches the presynaptic potential, it causes the pointed away from the cell body; which polarizes
release of chemical signaling molecules the flow of material into and out of the axon.
- Chemical Synapse – junction formed between the - Dendrites – microtubules do not form a consistent
presynaptic terminal. orientation, has greater function similarity to soma
- Synapse (Greek - joining together or junction)  Fast Axoplasmic Transport
comprises the presynaptic terminal, the membrane - Fast Anterograde
of the target cell (postsynaptic membrane), and the 400mm/day
space between two synaptic clefts. - Membranous organelles, including the vesicles and
- The area of postsynaptic membrane if frequently mitochondria, are the principal freight of fast
amplified to increase the surface that is available axoplasmic transport.
for receptors. - Proteins, lipids and polysaccharides that move at
- Dendritic Spines – formation of small projections fast rates in action are sequestered inside the
through which the amplification can occur organelle or bound to or inserted into the organellar
- Amplification can also occur through infolding of the membrane.
plasma membrane - Kinesin – a microtubule-dependent motor protein,
- Molecules released by the presynaptic terminals helps microtubule to move organelles and vesicle. It
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to is an ATPase that produces vectorial movement of
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane its payload along the microtubule.
- Receptors then convert the chemical signal of the  Fast Retrograde Transport
transmitter molecules (directly/indirectly) back into - 200-300mm/day
electrical signal. - Provides a mechanism for target-derived growth
- Neurons can be thought of as a highly specialized factors
endocrine cells. Neurons Package and store - Brain Dynein or Map-1C – used by Axons to move
hormones and hormone - like molecules which the material back toward the cell body
neurons release it rapidly into the extracellular - Map-1C – Like Kinesin, moves along microtubule
space by exocytosis in response to external tracks and is an ATPase, but in the opposite
stimulus direction to kinesin. Slightly slower pace than
- Neurons can be thought of as polarized cells kinesin
- Plasticity – synapses can undergo long-term  Slow Axoplasmic Transport

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 - Slow Anterograde region. Some of these cells have very short axons,
- 0.2-8mm/day or are anaxomal (lack a conventional axon)
- For cytoskeletal proteins and soluble proteins that Example of an anaxonal neuron: amacrine cell of
are used as enzymes for intermediary metabolism the retina
- Neurofilaments and microtubule subunits – slowest-  Dendritic Geometry
moving proteins (0.2-1mm/day) - Pyramidal Cells – roughly pyramid-shaped set of
- More number of transport interruptions during the dendritic branches, all appear to have spines.
long axonal journey - Stellate Cells – radial pattern of dendritic branches,
may have spine or none.
 Number of Processes
- Neurons can also be classified by the number of
process that extend to their cell bodies
- Unipolar neuron – Example: Dorsal root ganglion
cell is the classic unipolar neuron
- Bipolar – two processes extending form opposite
sides of the cell body. Example: retinal bipolar cell
- Multipolar – most neurons in brain, cell with many
dendritic processes

Glial cells provide a physiological environment for neurons

Glial cells – lacks axons, action potentials, synaptic potentials.
More numerous than neurons and are diverse in structure and
function
 CNS glial cells = oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
microglial cells
 PNS glial cells = Satellite cells (in autonomic), sensory
ganglia, Schwann cells and enteric glial cells.
Oligodendrocytes – forms myelin sheath in CNS
Schwann cells – forms myelin sheath in PNS

Neurons can be classified on the basis of their axonal

projection, their dendritic geometry, and the number of
processes emanating from the cell body

 Axonal projection
- Projection Neurons – (Principal Neurons or Golgi
type I cells) neurons with long axons that connect
with other parts of the nervous system
- Interneurons – (intrinsic neurons or Golgi type II
cells) All of its processes are confined to one

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 2. Mesencephalon – midsection; midbrain
3. Rhombencephalon – posterior part
 Metencephalon – pons and cerebellum
 Myelencephalon – medulla
 Sulcus limitans – a groove formed as the neural tube
thickens with cell proliferation
- Divides the neural tube into:
1. Basal Plate – Ventral area, efferent functions;
In spinal cord, it develops into the ventral horn
contains cell bodies of somatic motor neurons,
intermediolateral column
2. Alar Plate – Dorsal area, afferent neurons;
Dorsal horn contains sensory neurons
 Nuclei – aggregates of neurons
- Nucleus tractus solitarii - afferent developed from
alar plates.
- Dorsal motor neurons – efferent from basal plate
 Choroid plexus – responsible for secreting the CSF

Neurons and glial cells originate from cells in the

proliferating germinal matrix near the ventricles

 Neuroepithelial cells – rapidly dividing stem cells, gives

DEVELOPMENT OF NEURONS AND GLIAL rise to neurons and glial cells
- Located near the ventricles near the embryonic
CELLS CNS
- Divided into 2 regions:
Neurons differentiate from the neuroectoderm 1. Ventricular zone(VZ) – produce separate
progenitor cells that produce only neuron,
 Gastrulation – at this stage, the vertebrae embryo oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and ependymal
consists of three layers: cells
1. Endoderm 2. Subventricular zone(SVZ)
2. Mesoderm - Epidermal Growth Factor, platelet-derived growth
3. Ectoderm – Nervous system, skin factor, growth hormones – influences rate of cell
 Notochord – specialized cord of mesodermal cells, division
st
underlying the ectoderm - Most neurons in brain are generated during the 1
 Neuroectoderm – induced or directed by the cells of the 120 days of embryogenesis
notochord to form the neural tube (Neurulation)  Neuronal Progenitor cells – appear earliest and produce

rd st
3 Fetal Week – the 1 step of neurulation is the nearly the entire complement of adult neurons during
formation of the neural plate early embryonic life.
- Rapid proliferation of these neuroectodermal cells
(neural plate) creates the neural tube Neurons migrate to their correct anatomical position in the
- Neural tube = brain and spinal cord brain with the help of adhesion molecule
th
- Neural Canal (Neural tube lumen) = 4 ventricle of
the brain and central canal of spinal cord  Radial cells – contacted by migrating neurons,
 Neural crest – forms majority of PNS and most determines the direction of neuronal migration
peripheral cells of ANS; Chromaffin cells of the adrenal  CAMs (cell-cell adhesion molecules) – proteins that
medulla, Sympathetic ganglia promote selective cellular aggregation
2+
- unipolar neurons, cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X - Cadherins – Ca dependent
2+
- Schwann cells, satellite glial cells and pigment cells - N-CAMs (neural cell adhesion molecules) – Ca
of skin independent

th
4 gestational week – brain exhibits regional  Extracellular matrix molecules – also assists migrating
specializations: cells
1. Prosenchephalon – anterior part - Laminin and Fibronectin - glycoproteins
 Telencephalon – basal ganglia, cerebral cortex - Secreted by neurons and astrocytes
 Diencephalon – thalamus, hypothalamus,  Cell matrix adhesion molecules
subthalamus, neurohypophysis - Integrins – bind laminin and fibronectin resulting for

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 growing axons to move together in fascicles
 Chemotaxis – ability of a cell to follow a chemical signal
emitted from a target cell
- Netrin – secreted by midline cells, attracts
developing axons destined to cross the midline

Neurons do not regenerate


st
Neurons – arise in the 1 4 months of intrauterine life,
after birth neurons do not divide
- Lack of regenerative ability is a design principle to
ensure that learned behavior and memories are
preserved in stable populations of neurons
throughout life
- Olfactory bulb neurons – an exception, are
continually renewed throughout adult life by a
population of stem cells or neuronal progenitor cells
 Axons – In CNS do not regenerate effectively, In PNS it
can regrow and reconnect to organs; either muscle or
sensory
- Oligodendrocytes and myelin carry molecules
(myelin-associated glycoprotein) – inhibits axon
growth in CNS
 Glia – can be replaced if they are lost or injured
- Depends on the progenitor cells committed to the
glial lineage
- Astrocytic glial scar – most typical reaction of
mammalian brains to a wide range of injuries. It is
produced primarily by an enlargement of individual
astrocytes, a process called hypertrophy and
increased expression of Glial acidic fibrillary protein
- Microglial cells – derived from cells related to the
monocyte-macrophage lineage in blood not from
the neuroepithelium, are the main cells that
proliferate at the brain injury site

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 - Visual and auditory input
- 40:1 - Afferent and Efferent ratio
- Divided into 3 parts:
a. Vestibulocerebellum (archicerebellum)
 it helps maintain body’s balance. Vestibular
system, inner ear
b. Spinocerebellum (paleocerebellum)
 it helps regulate muscle tone, receives strong
input from muscle stretch receptors through
connections in the brain stem and spinal cord.
c. Cerebrocerebellum (neocerebellum)
 it coordinates motor behavior, largest part of the
cerebellum, receives projections from sensorimotor
portions of cerebral cortex
3. Diencephalon
a. Thalamus
- main integrating station for sensory information that
is bound for the cerebral cortex
- controls arousal and memory function
b. Subthalamus
- With thalamus, receives projections from the basal
ganglia that are important motor function.
- Parkinson’s disease – severe movement disorder,
gradually lose the ability to make voluntary
movements. By stimulating certain areas of the
subthalamus, it is possible to improve movement
c. Hypothalamus
- CNS structure that most affects ANS
- Endocrine System: neurons located within specific
nuclei in the hypothalamus synthesizes hormones
(Arginine Vasopressin and Oxytocin) and transport
them to the posterior pituitary gland. Releasing
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM hormones (gonadotropin-releasing hormones) in to
the portal system
The CNS consists of the telencephalon, cerebellum, 4. Brainstem (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla)
diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla and spinal cord - Cranial nerves – paired nerves through which brainstem
receive sensory(afferent) information and send out
CNS can be divided into five major areas: motor(efferent) signal
- important control centers for ANS
1. Telencephalon – cerebral cortex - Reticular formation – portion of brainstem contains a
- Most conspicuous part of the paired cerebral loosely organized interconnected collection of neurons
hemispheres. and fiber
- Surface area: 2200 cm
2 a. Midbrain – control eye movement (CN III and CN IV)
- No. of neurons: 1.5-2 x10
10 b. Pons – control mastication (CN V), eye movement (CN
14 VI), facial muscles (CN VII)
- No. of synaptic contacts: 3 x 10
- thinking, learning, memory, consciousness - Receives somatic sensory information from face,
- Corpus callosum and small white matter tracts – scalp, mouth, and nose (CN V)
interconnect the two cerebral hemispheres - Hearing and equilibrium (CN VIII)
- Basal ganglia – a functionally related group of c. Medulla – somatic motor neurons
neuron clusters consisting: - CN XI – neck
a. Striatum (caudate and putamen), - CN XII – tongue
b. Globus pallidus, - With pons, involved in respiration, blood pressure,
c. Amygdala - emotions heart rate and digestion (CN IX and X)
st
d. Hippocampal formation – new memories 5. Spinal Cord – from base of the skull to the 1 lumbar
Vertebra(L1)
2. Cerebellum – dorsal to the brain stem - 31 segments that each have a motor and sensory
- 10% of the CNS volume nerve root
- 50% of the CNS neuron - 31 bilaterally symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves

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 - Dorsal root – fascicles of axons where sensory a single dorsal root and its ganglion
information enters (Dorsal root entry zone)
- Ventral roots – contains strictly of efferent fibers The ANS innervates effectors that are not under voluntary
- Ascending tracts – sensory fibers control
- Descending tracts – motor neurons
- Lateral corticospinal tract – most important  Body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure
descending tract; 90% of its cell bodies of origin are  3 divisions:
in the contralateral cervical cortex 1. Parasympathetic
- Ascending and descending tracts are both found on 2. Sympathetic
the white portion of the spinal cord 3. Enteric – rhythmic contraction of intestinal smooth
- Segmental reflex – sensory fibers enter the spinal muscle and regulates the secretory function of intestinal
cord and synapse directly on motor neurons in that epithelial cells. It receives afferent input from the gut
same segment wall and is subjected to modulation of the two other
- Intersegmental reflex – incoming fibers synapse divisions of ANS
with neurons in other spinal segments  Parasympathetic and sympathetic composed of two-
- Suprasegmental reflex – incoming signals travel neuron pathways, has both CNS and PNS parts
rostrally to the brainstem before they synapse

The PNS comprises the cranial and spinal nerves their

associated sensory ganglia, and various sensory receptors

Main purposes of PNS:

1. Transduces physical or chemical stimuli both from the
external environment and from the body into raw
sensory information through receptors
2. Conveys sensory information to the CNS along axon
pathways
3. Conveys motor signals from the CNS along axon
pathways to target organs (Primarily Skeletal and
smooth muscles)
4. Converts the motor signals to chemical signals at
synapses on target tissue in periphery

 PNS can also be divided into somatic and autonomic

parts
a. Somatic – sensory neurons and axons that innervate
the skin, joints, muscles, motor axons of skeletal
muscles
- Deals with body’s external environment
b. Autonomic – sensory and motor axons that innervates
smooth muscle, exocrine gland
- Deals with body’s internal environment
 Peripheral nerves – organized bundles of axons in PNS
(Sciatic nerve)
 Endoneurium – loose connective tissue that surrounds
individual axon
 Perineurium – connective tissue sheath that covers the
fascicles (axons bundled together in small groups), for
structural stability to the nerve.
 Epineurium – matrix of connective tissue that surrounds
group of fascicles
 Schwann cells – forms a myelinated wrap around a
single adjacent axon.
 Unmyelinated axon – Schwann cell surrounds it but
does not wrap multiple times around
 2:1 – Unmyelinated and myelinated ratio
 Dermatome – area of cutaneous innervation provided by

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