Alternating Currents
1 I Use the following terms in relation to an alternating
current or
voltage
9 frequency b
peak value c root mean
square
value
An alternating is one in which the direction changes
periodically
1
Square wave a 2 Sinusoidal a
c nu a I A
EIS tls
Peak value Maximum value of the current or voltage
which is Imax Unax
or
Frequency The number of cycles per
second and is
measured in Hertz Hz
Root mean Square That fraction of the peak value that
would dissipate heat at the same rate as a steady
d c through a given resistor
Average Rover fr
Im ImI
I'msR If Ims
Ums UmsIms
Ing UIn
2 Use an
equation of the form to sin wt to represent
an alternating current or voltage
Um Sincot and I Insincot
w zaf
1.3 Use the relationship that the peak value is E
times the nm's value for the sinusoidal case
1.4 Discuss the advantages of using alternating current
and high voltages for the transmission of electrical
energy
c Alternating currents are easier and cheaper to produce
than direct currents The alternating current is produced
by rotating a coil in a magnetic field and the
mechanical
energy for rotation comes from steam which is
producedfrom the heating of water with natural
are produced from
gas being the fuel
Direct currents
chemical reactions in a battery which is relatively expensive
to manufacture
2 The alternating voltages can be increased or
decreased as required with minimum
energy wastage
by means of a transformer whereas the direct voltage
has to be altered by means of resistors which have
significant energy dissipation
3 There is significant loud pollution with the
disposal of batteries whereas with a C generation
there is the issue of fossil fuel emissions
4 when alternating currents are transmitted at
high voltages there is significantly less power losses
in the cables as compared to low
voltagetransmission
2 The n Junction Diode
p
2.1 Describe the electrical properties of semi conductors
Conduction in a Semi Conductor
In the crystal of a semiconductor material if an
electron escapes from its the lattice
position on a vacancy
is left behind and serve this position was
initially
neutral the loss of the electron will leave it with a
positive charge and therefore called a hole This hole
acts as a
vacancy for
any other electron and
when it is filled another hole will be created wherethe
other electron would have left Holes are considered as
a Positive Charge Carrier
Th umber of holes is equivalent to the number of
mobile electrons and some all of the charge do not
come from
any
cotenal some the semiconductor is
classified intrinsic
Intrinsic semiconductors are of little importance as their
conduction is too limited The amount of conduction taking
place can be increased
greatly by increasing the number of
available holes or This can be done by
electrons
adding a small amount of another material that
can supply additional holes or electrons This is
referred to as Doping and the natural is an
impurity
2.2 Distinguish between
p type and n type material
N type Semiconductors
Negative type When a silicon crystal is doped with a
penta valent element such as phosphorus or antimony
the impurity atom replaces one of the silicon atoms the
on
crystal Silicon has a valence of four and shares four
electrons with neighboring atoms When the phosphorus atom
replaces a silicon atom four
of its valence electrons will
be used in covalent bonding The fifth election
will be able to drift in the conduction band and take
part in Conduction and the impurity added is called
a Donor as it donates electrons for conduction
Change Carriers are electrons
N type material is one in which the majority of the
charge carriers are electrons
P type Semiconductor
Th majority carriers This is made by
are holes
a process called doping Doping is the process of adding
impurity to a semiconductor
a controlled amount of an
to enhance of conductive properties When a silicon
crystal is doped with a trivalent element loke
aluminum boron gallium indium it acts as an acceptor
or
atom which readily from a neighbouring
accepts electrons
bond This leaves a hole in this bond Essentially
the acceptor dopant atom has an unoccupied energy
level leaving holes on the valence band
2 3 Explain the formation of a depletion layer at a
pnjunctions defeats moment ofholes
holes
a
io
aamdF
Curet
At the junction electrons from the inside tend to
diffuse across into the p side where there are
veryfew
free Similarly holes fromthe p side tend to
electrons
diffuse into the n side where there are very few holes
The diffusion motion of these charge carriers
contributes to diffusion current which is directed
from the p side to the n side The diffusion
current is due to the flow of holes This is balanced
by the flow of electrons in the opposite direction
On the side electrons from the inside diffuse
p
across the
junction and occupy the holes in the
valence band occupying a vacant spot and producing
a fixed negative charge
On the n side this diffusion of electrons leaves
the donor electrons with holes in the valence bond
causing a build up of fixed position change
The diffusion of electrons through the junction plane
causes a build up of space charge on each
side of the plane positive on the n side and
negative side on the p side
These two form the depletion zone a
regions
region free of majority mobile charge carriers
Depletion longer the region on either side of the
p n junction where there are no net charge carriers
2.4 Discuss the flow of current when the p n junction
diode is forward biased or reversed bias
11
diff curet Forward bias
p i n
The depletion layer is overcome becomes remover and
p type will flow to the n type and
holes from the
electrons flowing on the opposite direction The diffusion
Currentincreases The diffusion current occurs in the
same direction as the emf supplied by the active
device
1ft Reverse Bias
p l n
In the reverse bias the n type is made
connection
more positive and the
p type more negative This
causes an increase in the width of the depletion longer
causing a very high resistance so that the current
flowing through the junction is approximately zero
2.5 Discuss the IV characteristic of the pn junction
diode
Current mA
[Link] rp lu
Applications of the P N Junction Diode
1 As a half wave rectifier when an A C is applied to
the diode the junction conducts on the forward direction
but prevents current from flowing in the revere direction
2 As full rectifier ReadPestoned
a wave
Studyful
3 The mantache of the light emitting diode LED
When an electron fromthe conduction bond falls into
a hole the valence bond there is a loss of energy
of the electrons which is dissipated as heat There
must be a large number of electron hole
Combinations to cause the emission of light This
is achieved by applying a strong forward bias on
a heavily doped p n junction
a The photo diode
When current is passed through
a
p n junction
a
light is emitted It follows then that of light is
incident on
p n junction a current can be
a produced
on the circuit containing the p n junction
Transistorse
A three terminal semiconductor device which amplifies
of switches electrical signals and power
The junction transistor is transistor made up
a
of two p n junctions connected in series backto
back
PNP and NPM
NP Collector
µ
MM
Base
base
µ switches on with a
Yenter Legh signal
Emitter
PNI Collector
enter
base Base Sutches on withe
ftp low signal
1 emitter
Emitter
3
Transduces
An electrical device that can convert one form of
energy to another Microphone motors speakers
Active transducers these are transducers which generate
their own electrical voltage They do not require an
external energy supply
Passive transducers these are transducers which
require
external electrical power and cannot generate their own
cement
hight Dependent Resistors LDR
A resistor made of a semiconducting material in which
electrons are liberated
byhigher intensities of incodentlight
Light intensity therefore has a negative correlation
to resistance higher light intensity lower
resistance
Lower light intensity higher resistance
K
mm
Intestate Temperative Coefficient this means that as
temperature increases resistance decreases
Positive Temperature Coefficient this means that as
temperative increases resistance increases
Light Enotting LED
Semiconductor diode which courts light when a small
current passes through it A protective resistor is usually
placed in series with on LED to prevent damage
due to high currents
At
MÑTectro
magnetic switch which uses a small current
to activate an electromagnet which attracts a
metallic relay switch to make or break contacts
with a Secondary circuit containing a load
I