KOGI STATE POLYTECHNIC,
LOKOJA
(ITAKPE CAMPUS)
THERMODYNAMICS
(MECH 213)
BY ABDULAZEEZ IRA HABIB
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DEFINITION OF A CYCLE
A cycle is defined as a repeated series of operations occurring in a
certain order. It may be repeated by repeating the processes in the same
order. The cycle may be of imaginary perfect engine or actual engine.
The former is called ideal cycle and the latter actual cycle. In ideal cycle
all accidental heat losses are prevented and the working substance is
assumed to behave like a perfect working substance.
What is Air standard cycle?
The air standard cycle is a thermodynamic power cycle that converts
heat energy into mechanical power by considering air as a working fluid
with constant specific heats (Cp & Cv).
In this cycle, the air is the only working fluid that goes through changes
in its thermodynamic properties to convert heat into mechanical power.
In this cycle, there is no internal energy generation by means of burning
any fuel inside of the engine.
The heat is extremely added by means of a heat exchanger & also it is
rejected by using heat exchange to the sink.
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It consists of a non-flow process. It means that a certain amount of air is
continuously performing successive cycles. No intake or exhaust of air is
permitted into the cycle.
Hence it works as a closed cycle with no mass transfer. Working fluid air
is considered an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
Following are examples of air standard cycle:-
Carnot cycle
Otto cycle or Petrol cycle
Diesel cycle
Air standard dual cycle
Rankine Cycle etc
Air standard cycle assumptions:
The Air standard cycle assumptions are as follows:-
1) Air is considered as working fluid.
2) Air has constant specific heat.
3) Air behaves as ideal gas.
4) All processes in cycle as internally reversible.
5) For air Change in K.E.= 0, Change in P.E.= 0
6) No internal heat generation.
7) Heat is added & rejected externally.
8) The cycle is closed & processes are non-flow processes.
9) There are no frictional losses.
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed
without leaving any trace on the surroundings. It means both system and
surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the reverse
process. Reversible processes do not occur and they are only
idealizations of actual processes. We use reversible process concept
because, a) they are easy to analyze (since system passes through a
series of equilibrium states); b) they serve as limits (idealized models) to
which the actual processes can be compared.
Some factors that cause a process to become irreversible:
• Friction
• Unrestrained expansion and compression
• Mixing
• Heat transfer (finite ΔT)
• Inelastic deformation
• Chemical reactions
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In a reversible process things happen very slowly, without any resisting
force, without any space limitation → everything happens in a highly
organized way (it is not physically possible ‐ it is an idealization).
Internally reversible process: if no irreversibilities occur within the
boundaries of the system. In these processes a system undergoes
through a series of equilibrium states, and when the process is reversed,
the system passes through exactly the same equilibrium states while
returning to its initial state.
Externally reversible process: if no irreversibility occurs outside the
system boundaries during the process. Heat transfer between a
reservoir and a system is an externally reversible process if the surface
of contact between the system and reservoir is at the same temperature.
Totally reversible (reversible): both externally and internally reversible
processes.
Examples: Some examples of nearly reversible processes are:
(i) Frictionless relative motion.
(ii) Expansion and compression of spring.
(iii) Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of fluid.
(iv) Polytrophic expansion or compression of fluid.
(v) Isothermal expansion or compression.
(vi) Electrolysis.
An irreversible process is one in which heat is transferred through a finite
temperature. In summary, processes that are not reversible are called
irreversible.
Examples of Irreversible process.
(i) Relative motion with friction
(ii) Combustion
(iii) Diffusion
(iv) Free expansion
(v) Throttling
(vi) Electricity flow through a resistance
(vii) Heat transfer
(viii) Plastic deformation.
Irreversibilities are of two types:
1) External irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating
effects outside the working fluid.
Example: Mechanical friction occurring during a process due to some
external source.
2) Internal irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating
effects within the working fluid.
Example: Unrestricted expansion of gas, viscosity and inertia of the gas.
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Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is a thermodynamic process that explains the
transformation of gasoline’s chemical energy into thermal energy within
spark ignition internal combustion engines. It involves a series of
pressure, temperature volume, and heat exchangers, ultimately
converting fuel into motion. This cycle is utilized in both 2-stroke and 4-
stroke engine configurations.
Process 1-2: The piston moves from the bottom dead centre (BDC) to
the top dead centre (TDC) compressing the fuel and air (charge) in
adiabatic compression.
Process 2-3: The heat is transferred from an external source at a
constant volume to the charge while the piston is still at the TDC. The
mixture rapidly burns in this process.
Process 3-4: When the mixture burns, it expands adiabatically or
isentropically. This is called the power stroke.
Process 4-1: the heat is rejected from the air at constant volume at the
end of the cycle. The piston will be at the BDC in this process.
Advantages of Otto Cycle
Good reliability with performance
The cycle is most suitable for light vehicles that run on a petrol
engine
Low cost of manufacturing the engines based on the cycle
High power-to-weight ratio of the engines designed with Otto cycle
theory
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Application of Otto Cycle
The Otto modern automobiles on the road use the Otto cycle to
produce work by converting energy.
After the decline of 2-stroke engines, the Otto cycle gained popularity
in the 4-stroke engine category
These engines are now used in cars, scooters, racing vehicles,
mopeds, ships, trains, and aeroplanes too.
This expression is known as the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle.
It is clear from the above expression that efficiency increases with the
increase in the value of r, which means we can have maximum efficiency
by increasing r to a considerable extent, but due to practical difficulties
its value is limited to about 8. The net work done per kg in the Otto cycle
can also be expressed in terms of p, v. If p is expressed in bar i.e., 105
N/m2, then work done.
Question 1:
In an air standard (Otto) constant volume cycle, the compression ratio is
8 to 1, and the compression commences at 1 bar, 27°C. The constant
volume heat addition is 800 kJ per kg of air. Calculate the thermal
efficiency.
Given data
cv = 718 J/kgK
ɤ = 1.4
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Question 2) A petrol engine has a bore 80mm, a stroke of 110mm and
a clearance volume of 53.80 cm3. Calculate thermal efficiency of the
petrol engine based on air standard Otto cycle.
Solution
The engine bore D = 80mm = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Engine Stroke L = 110mm = 11cm= 0.11m
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Question3:
One kg of air taken through, a) Otto cycle, b) Diesel cycle initially the air is
at 1 bar and 290k. The compression ratio for both cycles is 12 and heat
addition is 1.9 MJ in each cycle. Calculate the air standard efficiency.
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CONSTANT PRESSURE OR DIESEL CYCLE
This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 1897. It differs from Otto
cycle in that heat is supplied at constant pressure instead of at constant
volume. The Figures above shows the p-v and T-s diagrams of this cycle
respectively.
This cycle comprises of the following operations:
Diesel Cycle Working Principle
The piston, the crankshaft, and the combustion chamber are three
crucial Compression-Ignition engine or diesel engine.
There are four processes involved in a typical diesel engine: Suction,
Compression, Expansion, and Exhaust. These are also referred to as
strokes.
Suction Stroke
The first procedure that introduces air into the cylinder is the suction
process. The piston is in the top dead centre (TDC) piston. The piston
moves from TDC to the bottom dead centre (BDC) when air is
introduced. The inlet valve is closed.
Compression Stroke
The compression is the second phase in which the air and fuel that have
been introduced into the cylinder are compressed. The piston is
positioned at BDC. Throughout the compression operation, both the inlet
and exhaust valves are closed. The piston moves from BDC to TDC
during this stroke increasing the pressure and temperature.
Expansion Stroke
This is the third step in which the piston is positioned at TDC. The piston
moves from TDC to TDC. The combustion of fuel occurs towards the
end of the compression of fuel occurs towards the end of the
compression process, and this pushes the piston to the bottom dead
centre. During this phase, the intake and exhaust valves are closed.
Exhaust Stroke
During the exhaust stroke, the piston is at BDC. The cylinder discharges
the charge (fuel and air mixture) out of the engine via the exhaust port.
During this operation, the inlet valve will be closed while the exhaust
valve will be opened. This is simple working principle of the diesel
engine which is vital as we have expertise in the diesel cycle.
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(i) 1-2......Adiabatic compression.
(ii) 2-3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
(iii) 3-4......Adiabatic expansion.
(iv) 4-1......Rejection of heat at constant volume.
Point 1 represents that the cylinder is full of air.
Let P1, V1 and T1 be the corresponding pressure, volume and absolute
temperature. The piston then compresses the air adiabatically (i.e., pVr
= constant) till the values become P2, V2 and T2 respectively (at the end
of the stroke) at point 2.
Heat is then added from a hot body at a constant pressure.
During this addition of heat let volume increases from V2 to V3 and
temperature T2 to T3, corresponding to point 3.
This point (3) is called the point of cut-off. The air then expands
adiabatically to the conditions P4, V4 and T4 respectively corresponding
to point 4.
Finally, the air rejects the heat to the cold body at constant volume till the
point 1 where it returns to its original state.
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It may be observed that eqn. (13.7) for efficiency of diesel cycle is
different from that of the Otto cycle only in bracketed factor. This factor is
always greater than unity, because r > 1. Hence for a given compression
ratio, the Otto cycle is more efficient.
Advantages of Diesel Cycle
The efficiency of the diesel cycle is higher when compared with the
otto cycle
The fuel costs are low which is economical
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Minimum chancd of catching fire as the flammable vapours
produced are negligible amounts
Diesel engines have cleaner exhaust emissions which are less
harmful to the environment.
Disadvantages of Diesel Cycle
Typically, diesel-powered cars are more expensive than regular
cars
Repairs and maintenance are expensive
Research has shown that diesel fuel in recent times lack
lubricating properties
In cold weather, starting a diesel engine is challenging.
Compare to gasoline counterparts, diesel engines are much
noisier.
Application
The diesel engine is a direct application of this cycle, as we learnt
from the diesel cycle from the diesel cycle explanation, and the
applications are similar to both. These engines are used in light
trucks, agricultural machinery, electrical power generators, and
motorboats.
QUESTION 4
An engine operates on the air standard diesel cycle. The inlet
temperature and pressure are 27˚C and 100KPa respectively. The
compression ratio is 12:1 and the heat addition is 1800KJ/kg. Calculate
the maximum temperature and pressure of the cycle, the thermal
efficiency.
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1) In an air standard diesel cycle, the pressure and temperature
of air at the beginning of cycle are 1 bar x 40⁰C. The
temperatures before and after the heat supplied are 400⁰C and
1500⁰C. Find the air standard efficiency.
DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE
This cycle (also called the limited pressure cycle or mixed cycle) is a
combination of Otto and Diesel cycles, in a way, that heat is added partly
at constant volume and partly at constant pressure; the advantage of
which is that more time is available to fuel (which is injected into the
engine cylinder before the end of compression stroke) for combustion.
Because of lagging characteristics of fuel this cycle is invariably used for
diesel and hot spot ignition engines.
The dual cycle is used in Ship because it is more efficient than other
cycles, which are also commonly used in engines. Dual combines
element of both the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle to create a more
efficient cycle. During the dual cycle, the fuel is the first compressed, like
in a Diesel cycle, but then ignited by a spark, like in an Otto cycle. This
allows for a more complete combustion of the fuel, which results in
higher efficiency.
The dual combustion cycle (Fig 3) consists of the following operations:
(i) 1-2—Adiabatic compression
(ii) 2-3—Addition of heat at constant volume
(iii) 3-4—Addition of heat at constant pressure
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(iv) 4-5—Adiabatic expansion
(v) 5-1—Rejection of heat at constant volume.
The cycle is the equivalent air cycle for reciprocating high speed
compression ignition engines. The P-V and T-s diagrams are shown in
above, compression and expansion processes are isentropic; heat
addition is partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure
while heat rejection is at constant volume as in the case of the Otto and
Diesel cycles. The heat supplied, Qs per unit mass of charge is given by
6v(T3-T2) + Cp(T3-T2)
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Question 5:
An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and compression
begins at 1 bar and 50⁰C. The maximum pressure is 70 bar. The heat
transformed to air at constant pressure is equal to heat transferred at
constant volume. Find the temperature at all cardial points, cycle efficiency
and mean effective pressure take Cp= 1.005KJ/kgK, Cv = 0.718KJ/kgK.
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Question 6:
The compression ratio of a dual cycle is 10. The pressure and temperature
at the beginning of the cycle are 1 bar and 27⁰C. the maximum pressure of
the cycle is limited to 70 bar and heat supplied is limited to 1675KJ/kg fair
find thermal efficiency.
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