Chapter 3: Network Access
Comparing the two models
At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when transmitting over a physical
medium.
Only describes the handoff from the internet layer to the physical
network protocols.
OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to access the 2
media and the physical means to send data over a network.
Focus on Data Link Layer
IP
IP
Data Link Layer: Post-It Label on IP “box” (demo)
Physical Layer: Roll or toss tennis balls (demo) 3
Reminder of encapsulation/decapsulation
Data Link IP TCP HTTP Data Link
Data Trailer
Header Header Header Header
Data Link Data Link
IP Packet
Header Trailer
Data Link Data Link
IP Packet
Header Trailer
Data Link Data Link
IP Packet
Header Trailer
Data Link IP TCP HTTP Data Link
Header Header Header Header
Data Trailer
4
Getting it Connected
Network Interface Cards
Connecting to the Wireless LAN with a Range Extender
Wireless devices must share access to the airwaves connecting to
the wireless access point.
Slower network performance may occur
A wired device does not need to share its access
Each wired device has a separate communications channel over
its own Ethernet cable.
The
Physical
Layer
The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that
make up a data link layer frame across the network media.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Media
The physical layer produces the representation and groupings of bits
for each type of media as:
Copper cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of light.
Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards
Upper OSI layers are performed in software designed by software
engineers and computer scientists.
TCP/IP suite are defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) in RFCs
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards
Standard
Networking Standards
organization
• ISO 8877: Officially adopted the RJ connectors (e.g., RJ-11, RJ-45)
ISO • ISO 11801: Network cabling standard similar to EIA/TIA 568.
• TIA-568-C: Telecommunications cabling standards, used by nearly all
voice, video and data networks.
• TIA-569-B: Commercial Building Standards for Telecommunications
EIA/TIA Pathways and Spaces
• TIA-598-C: Fiber optic color coding
• TIA-942: Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers
ANSI • 568-C: RJ-45 pinouts. Co-developed with EIA/TIA
ITU-T • G.992: ADSL
• 802.3: Ethernet
IEEE • 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
• 802.15: Bluetooth
Who maintaining physical layer standards?
Different international and national organizations, regulatory
government organizations, and private companies
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Physical Frame Encoding Signalling
Media
Components Technique Method
• UTP • Manchester Encoding • Changes in the
• Coaxial • Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) electromagnetic field
• Connectors techniques • Intensity of the
Copper • NICs • 4B/5B codes are used with electromagnetic field
cable • Ports Multi-Level Transition Level 3 • Phase of the
• Interfaces (MLT-3) signaling electromagnetic wave
• 8B/10B
• PAM5
• Single-mode Fiber • Pulses of light • A pulse equals 1.
• Multimode Fiber • Wavelength multiplexing using • No pulse is 0.
• Connectors different colors
Fiber Optic
• NICs
cable • Interfaces
• Lasers and LEDs
• Photoreceptors
• Access Points • DSSS (direct-sequence spread- • Radio waves
Wireless • NICs spectrum)
media • Radio • OFDM (orthogonal frequency
• Antennae division multiplexing)
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Encoding or line encoding - Method of converting a stream of data
bits into a predefined "codes”.
Signaling - The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical,
or wireless signals that represent the "1" and "0" on the media.
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Encoding and Signaling
[Link]
eal-allens-network-maintenance-and-
troubleshooting-guide-revealed
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.
Typically measured in kilobits per second (kb/s) or megabits per
second (Mb/s).
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Throughput
Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media
over a given period of time.
Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the
specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations.
[Link]
[Link]
Network Media
Copper Cabling
Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Media
1 2
4
3
Signal attenuation - the longer the signal travels, the more it
deteriorates - susceptible to interference
Crosstalk - a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields
of a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire.
Copper
Cabling
Copper
Media
Counter the negative effects of different types of interference some cables
are wrapped in metallic shielding
Counter the negative effects of crosstalk, some cables have opposing
circuit wire pairs twisted together which effectively cancels the crosstalk.
Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
Read this section… good stuff!
Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
Braided or Foil Shield
Foil Shields
Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Copper Cabling
Cooper Media Safety
UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling
Read this section… more good stuff!
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards
UTP Cabling
UTP Connectors
UTP Cabling
Types of UTP Cable
UTP Cabling
Testing UTP Cables
Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber Media Cable Design
Please read this section…. More good stuff!
Fiber Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media
Fiber Optic Cabling
Network Fiber Connectors
Fiber Optic Cabling
Testing Fiber Cables
Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Implementation issues Copper media Fibre-optic
Bandwidth supported 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps 10 Mbps – 100 Gbps
Relatively short Relatively High
Distance (1 – 100 meters) (1 – 100,000 meters)
High
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low
(Completely immune)
High
Immunity to electrical hazards Low
(Completely immune)
Media and connector costs Lowest Highest
Installation skills required Lowest Highest
Safety precautions Lowest Highest
Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
• IEEE 802.11 standards
• Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi.
• Uses CSMA/CA
• Variations include:
• 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4 and 5 GHz
• 802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz
• IEEE 802.15 standard
• Supports speeds up to 3 Mbps
• Provides device pairing over distances from 1 to
100 meters.
• IEEE 802.16 standard
• Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps
• Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide
wireless broadband access.
Wireless Media
802.11 Wi-Fi Standards
Maximum Backwards
Standard Frequency
Speed compatible
802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz No
802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz No
802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 802.11b
802.11n 600 Mbps 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 802.11b/g
1.3 Gbps 2.4 GHz and 5.5
802.11ac (1300 Mbps) GHz
802.11b/g/n
7 Gbps 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and
802.11ad (7000 Mbps) 60 GHz
802.11b/g/n/ac
The Data
Link
Layer
The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that
make up a data link layer frame across the network media.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames
between nodes over a physical network media.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer Network
Data Link Sublayers
LLC Sublayer
Data Link
MAC Sublayer
Bluetooth
Ethernet
Physical
802.15
802.11
Wi-Fi
802.3
Data Link layer has two sublayers (sometimes):
Logical Link Control (LLC) – Software processes that provide services
to the Network layer protocols.
Frame information that identifies the Network layer protocol.
Multiple Layer 3 protocols, (ICMP, IPv4 and IPv6) can use the same
network interface and media.
Media Access Control (MAC) - Media access processes performed by
the hardware.
Provides Data Link layer addressing and framing of the data
according to the protocol in use.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer
Providing Access to Media
At each hop along the path, a router:
Accepts a frame from a medium
De-encapsulates the frame
Re-encapsulates the packet into a
new frame
Forwards the new frame
appropriate to the medium of that
segment of the physical network
Data Link Layer
Layer 2 Frame Structure
The data link layer prepares a packet for transport across the local
media by encapsulating it with a header and a trailer to create a
frame.
Topologies
Controlling Access to the Media
Media
Access
Control
Media Access Control - Regulates the placement of data frames
onto the media.
The method of media access control used depends on:
Media sharing
Do more than two nodes share the media?
If so, how? (Switches, hubs, etc.)
43
Serial vs multi-access Multi-access
Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point networks
Only two nodes
/30 subnets are common (later)
Protocols: PPP, HDLC, Frame Relay
Multi-access networks (LANs)
Multiple nodes
Subnets mask range depends upon the number of hosts (nodes)
Protocols: Ethernet, 802.11 (wireless), Frame Relay Multipoint 44
Topologies
Physical and Logical Topologies
LAN Topologies
Logical Topology for Shared Media
LAN Topologies
Contention-Based Access
Characteristics Contention-Based Technologies
• Stations can transmit at any time • CSMA/CD for 802.3 Ethernet networks
• Collision exist • CSMA/CA for 802.11 wireless networks
• There are mechanisms to resolve
contention for the media
Media Access Control
The media access control methods used by logical multi-access
topologies are typically:
CSMA/CD - Hubs
CSMA/CA - Wireless
Token passing – Token Ring
Later
48
WAN Topologies
Half and Full Duplex
Duplex Transmissions
Simplex Transmission: One way and one way only.
One way street
Half-duplex Transmission: Either way, but only one way at a time.
Two way street, but only one way at a time (land slide).
Ethernet hubs use half-duplex
Full-duplex Transmission: Both ways at the same time.
Two way street
Ethernet switches use full-duplex
50
Most serial links are full-duplex
Data Link Frame Fields
Data Link frame header fields may include:
Start Frame field - Indicates the beginning of the frame
Source and Destination address fields - Indicates the source
and destination nodes on the media
Priority/Quality of Service field - Indicates a particular type of
communication service for processing
Type field - Indicates the upper layer service contained in the
frame
Logical connection control field - Used to establish a logical
connection between nodes
Physical link control field - Used to establish the media link
Flow control field - Used to start and stop traffic over the media
Congestion control field - Indicates congestion in the media 51
Framing- The Trailer
The signals on the media could be subject to:
Interference
Distortion
Loss
This would change the bit values that those signals represent.
The trailer is used to determine if the frame arrived without error.
Error detection.
The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is used to determine if
errors occurred in the transmission and reception of the frame.
52
Cyclic Redundancy Check
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is commonly used.
Sending node includes a logical summary of the bits in the frame.
Receiving node calculates its own logical summary, or CRC.
Compares the two CRC values.
Equal – Accepts the frame
Different – Discards the frame
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Ethernet Protocol for LANs
Ethernet is a family of networking technologies that are defined in
the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.
Uses 48 bit addressing (Ethernet MAC addresses) for Source and
Destination
More next week!
54
Point-to-Point Protocol for WANs
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a protocol used to deliver frames
between two nodes.
PPP can be used on various physical media, including:
Twisted pair
Fiber optic lines
Satellite transmission
55
Wireless Protocol for LANs
802.11 is an extension of the IEEE 802 standards.
It uses the same 48-bit addressing scheme as other 802 LANs.
Contention-based system using a Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
56