3.
4 Metamorphic Rocks
Definitions: Metamorphic rocks and
Metamorphism
Metamorphic rock: rocks that have been changed by heat
and pressure without melting.
Causes of Metamorphism
Internal heat of the earth
The weight of overlying rocks
The horizontal pressures developed as rocks become
deformed.
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Metamorphic rocks and Metamorphism
The transition of one rock into another by
temperatures and/or pressures .
Metamorphic rocks are produced from:
Igneous rocks.
Sedimentary rocks.
Other metamorphic rocks.
• Metamorphism progresses incrementally from low-
grade to high-grade.
During metamorphism the rock must remain
essentially solid.
Agents of Metamorphism
(a) Heat
Most important agent.
Recrystallization results in new, stable minerals.
Two sources of heat:
- Contact metamorphism – heat from magma.
- An increase in temperature with depth due to the
geothermal gradient.
b) Pressure and differential stress
Increases with depth.
also be subjected to differential stress which is unequal in
different directions.
(c) Chemically active fluids
Mainly water with other volatile components.
Enhances migration of ions.
Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals.
(d) Parent rock (the importance of parent rock)
Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall chemical
composition as the parent rock from which they formed.
Mineral makeup determines, to a large extent, the degree to
which each metamorphic agent will cause change.
Common metamorphic rocks
(i) Foliated rocks
(a) Slate
• Very fine-grained.
• Excellent rock cleavage.
• Most often generated from low-grade metamorphism
of shale, mudstone, or siltstone.
(b) Phyllite
• Gradation in the degree of metamorphism between
slate and schist.
• Platy minerals not large enough to be identified with
the unaided eye.
• Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces.
• Exhibits rock cleavage.
• Composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite and/or
chlorite.
Slate (left) and phyllite (right), which is more wavy and shiny)
(c) Schist
• Medium- to coarse-grained.
• Platy minerals (mainly micas) predominate.
• The term schist describes the texture.
• To indicate composition, mineral names are used (such
as mica schist).
Garnet mica schist is a high
grade metamorphic rock
where individual plates of
shiny mica are easily
visible.
The dark red garnet
crystals are called
almandine.
(d) Gneiss
• Medium- to coarse-grained.
• Banded appearance.
• High-grade metamorphism.
• Often composed of white or light-colored feldspar-rich
layers with bands of dark ferromagnesian minerals.
Classifying metamorphic rocks
(ii) Nonfoliated rocks
(a) Marble
• Coarse, crystalline.
• Parent rock was limestone or dolostone.
• Composed essentially of calcite or dolomite crystals.
• Used as a decorative and monument stone.
• Exhibits a variety of colors.
Marble is a crystalline rock
formed by the metamorphosis
of limestone.
(b) Quartzite
• Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich sandstone.
• Quartz grains are fused together.
Quartzite is a nonfoliated
metamorphic rock
formed from quartz
sandstone. It is very
hard and resistant, and
can be taxing on
construction equipment.
Remarks: Rock Types
Any rock can become an igneous rock if it is melted to a
liquid and then is cooled back into a solid.
Any rock can become a metamorphic rock if it is changed by
heat and pressure but not melted.
Any rock can become a sedimentary rock if it is weathered
into clasts (particles) and then the clasts are compacted.
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Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic
Rocks
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks commonly yield rock pieces with
elongated shapes when crushed.
These rocks could cause mixing problems in fresh concrete
and directional properties in hardened concrete.
2. Foliated rocks posses prominent directional properties.
Strength and permeability are affected by the direction
of foliation.
Care should be taken that loads (from bridges, dams,
buildings, and foundations) are not transferred to foliated
rock masses in a direction closely parallel to the foliation.
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3. Metamorphic rocks may be deeply weathered and the
depth to bedrock is quite variable.
Care must be taken to found heavy structures, or to
located tunnel alignments, in sound rock whenever
possible.
4. Slate, schist, and phyllite are subject to rock overbreak
during blasting of rock cuts or tunnels because of their
pronounced rock cleavage.
High stress concentrations in tunnels may occur for the
same reason.
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5. The stability of rock slopes is greatly affected by the orientation
(attitude) of foliation with respect to the rock slope direction.
When foliation dips steeply into an opening, rockslides
commonly occur.
Rock bolts or tendons may be needed to prevent such
failures.
6. Marble is subject to the same problems as limestone.
Solution cavities and channels may develop, resulting in
similar problems of leakage of reservoir and collapse of newly
formed sinkholes.
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3.5 Stratigraphy
is they classification of different layers or layering of sedimentary
deposits, and in sedimentary or layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy is the key to understanding the structure of the bedrock in
time and space.
stratigraphy can be divided into several subfields:
Lithiostratigraphy is the classification of rock units on the basis of their
physical and mineralogical properties and relationships to other,
surrounding rocks.
Biostratigraphy is used to divide layers or successions of layers in units
(biozone) based on the presence of one or more fossils that are
characteristic of the zone.
Chronological Stratigraphy deals the classification a rock type based on
date of its formation.
Magnetiostratigraphy deals with the measurable variation on remanent
(inherited) magnetic properties.
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The End
Thanks
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