CHAPTER 2
GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION
GEODESY, THE BASIS OF CARTOGRAPHY
200. Definition sea level” is a difficult problem because of the many factors
that affect sea level. Sea level varies considerably on sever-
Geodesy is the application of mathematics to model al scales of time and distance and the extent of this
the size and shape of the physical earth, enabling us to variability is the result of seas that are in constant motion,
describe its magnetic and gravitational fields and a affected by the solar and lunar tides, wind, atmospheric
coordinate referencing system to precisely position and pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, and
navigate globally using one 3-dimensional coordinate salinity. In geodetic applications, the geoid is then used to
system. serve as the vertical reference surface to approximate mea-
Today's modern Global Navigation Satellite Systems sure mean sea level (MSL) heights and a height measured
(GNSS), such as GPS, have made it possible to establish a from the geoid to a point is called an orthometric height.
truly global geocentric reference system which can be In areas where elevation data are not available from con-
quickly adapted for precise positioning and navigation over
ventional geodetic leveling, an approximation of MSL
long distances.
heights using orthometric heights from the geoid can be ob-
Thus, the precision of today's navigation systems and
tained from the equation listed in Table 201. This equation
the global nature of satellite and other long-range position-
ing methods demand a more complete understanding of
geodesy by the navigator than has ever before been H=h-N
required.
where
201. The Shape of the Earth
H = orthometric height (the height relative
In geodetic applications, three primary reference to the geoid)
surfaces for the Earth are used (See Table 201): h = ellipsoid (geodetic) height (the height
1. a physical surface, relative to the ellipsoid)
2. an ellipsoid of revolution, which is a reference sur- N = geoid height (undulation)
face of purely mathematical nature, and
Table 201. Relations between orthometric, ellipsoid and
3. the geoid (an irregular surface, which has no com- geoid heights.
plete mathematical expression).
illustrates the determination of the orthometric height (H)
A physical surface is tangible, it can be traversed and of a point as a subtraction of the geoid height (N) from the
measurements can be made on it. The topography, ice caps,
ellipsoid height (h).
or sea surface area all physical surfaces.
An equipotential surface is one where the force of
202. Defining the Ellipsoid
gravity is always equal and the direction of gravity is
always perpendicular. The geoid is a particular equipo-
tential surface that would coincide with the mean ocean An ellipsoid is uniquely defined by specifying two
surface of the Earth if the oceans and atmosphere were in parameters. Geodesists, by convention, use the semi-major
equilibrium, at rest relative to the rotating Earth, and axis and either eccentricity or flattening. The size is
extended through the continents (such as with very narrow represented by the radius at the equator, the semi-major
canals). axis. The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the flattening,
In common practice, an ellipsoid height is the distance which indicates how closely an ellipsoid approaches a
a given point is above or below the ellipsoid surface, where- spherical shape. The flattening (f) is the ratio of the
as a geoid height is the distance the geoid surface is above difference between the semi-major (a) and semi-minor (b)
or below the ellipsoid surface. Determination of a “mean axes of the ellipsoid and the semi-major axis.
17
18 GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION
a–b
f = ----------- .
a
The ellipsoidal Earth model has its minor axis parallel
to the Earth's polar axis. Rotating the ellipse about the semi-
minor axis gives the ellipsoid of revolution. See Figure 202.
203. Ellipsoids and the Geoid as Reference Surfaces
Since the surface of the geoid is irregular and the sur-
face of an ellipsoid is regular, no ellipsoid can provide more
than an approximation of part of the geoidal surface. Histor-
ically, ellipsoids that best fit the geoid regionally were
employed. The widespread use of GNSS has facilitated the
use of global, best fitting ellipsoids. The most common are
the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) and the Geo-
detic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80) ellipsoids. See
Figure 202. An ellipsoid of revolution, with semimajor Table 203 for WGS 84 defining parameters.
axis (a), and semiminor axis (b).
Parameter Symbol Value Units
Semi-major Axis (Equatorial
a 6378137.0 m
Radius of the Earth)
Flattening factor of the Earth 1/f 298.257223563
Geocentric Gravitational GM +14 3 2
3.986004418 × 10 m ⁄s
Constant
Nominal Mean Angular ω -05 rads / s
7.292115 × 10
Velocity of the Earth
Table 203. WGS 84 defining parameters.
204. Coordinates Celestial observations by geodesists are made with
optical instruments (theodolite, zenith camera, prismatic
The astronomic latitude is the angle between a plumb astrolabe) which all contain leveling devices. When
line and the plane of the celestial equator. It is the latitude properly adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument
which results directly from observations of celestial bodies, coincides with the direction of gravity, which may not
uncorrected for deflection of the vertical component in the coincide with the plane of the meridian. Thus, geodetically
meridian (north-south) direction. Astronomic latitude ap- derived astronomic positions are referenced to the geoid.
plies only to positions on the Earth. It is reckoned from the The difference, from a navigational standpoint, is too small
astronomic equator (0°), north and south through 90°. to be of concern.
The astronomic longitude is the angle between the The geodetic latitude is the angle which the normal to
plane of the celestial meridian at a station and the plane of the the ellipsoid at a station makes with the plane of the
celestial meridian at Greenwich. It is the longitude which geodetic equator. In recording a geodetic position, it is
results directly from observations of celestial bodies, essential that the geodetic datum on which it is based also
uncorrected for deflection of the vertical component in the be stated. A geodetic latitude differs from the
prime vertical (east-west) direction. These are the coordinates corresponding astronomic latitude by the amount of the
observed by the celestial navigator using a sextant and a very meridian component of the local deflection of the vertical.
accurate clock based on the Earth’s rotation. See Figure 204.
GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION 19
Figure 204. Geoid-ellipsoid relationships.
The geodetic longitude is the angle between the plane geocentric, and a separate expression is not used.
of the geodetic meridian at a station and the plane of the Because of the oblate shape of the ellipsoid, the length
geodetic meridian at Greenwich. A geodetic longitude of a degree of geodetic latitude is not everywhere the same,
differs from the corresponding astronomic longitude by the increasing from about 59.7 nautical miles at the equator to
prime vertical component of the local deflection of the about 60.3 nautical miles at the poles.
vertical divided by the cosine of the latitude. The geodetic
A classic regional horizontal geodetic datum usually
coordinates are used for mapping.
consists of the astronomic and geodetic latitude, and astronomic
The geocentric latitude is the angle at the center of the
and geodetic longitude of an initial point (origin); an azimuth of
ellipsoid (used to represent the Earth) between the plane of the
equator, and a straight line (or radius vector) to a point on the a line (direction); the parameters (radius and flattening) of the
surface of the ellipsoid. This differs from geodetic latitude ellipsoid selected for the computations; and the geoidal
because the Earth is approximated more closely by a spheroid separation at the origin. A change in any of these quantities
than a sphere and the meridians are ellipses, not perfect circles. affects every point on the datum.
Both geocentric and geodetic latitudes refer to the For this reason, while positions within a given datum are
reference ellipsoid and not the Earth. Since the parallels of directly and accurately relatable, those from different datums
latitude are considered to be circles, geodetic longitude is must be transformed to a common datum for consistency.
TYPES OF GEODETIC SURVEY
205. Satellite Positioning operating simultaneously. Specialized processing is re-
quired for these highly accurate survey methods.
The use of artificial satellite signals allows positioning The position of a moving receiver often depends on a ref-
without the necessity of line-of-sight. Positions (including erence receiver at a known point that broadcasts corrections in
heights) determined in this manner are directly referred to
some fashion. The corrections are derived from the difference
the ellipsoid. Static precise positioning is commonly
between the known position of the base and the position deter-
employed to determine or extend geodetic control.
Absolute positioning uses a single stationary receiver mined by the current constellation.
to determine a position with respect to the center of the The electro-optical survey methods discussed following this
Earth. Relative static positioning determines a position with section on satellite positioning must be reduced to the ellipsoid
respect to another station and involves multiple receivers for computations.
20 GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION
206. Triangulation position the topographic and hydrographic detail of the
area. Error can amount to 1 part in 5,000.
The most common type of geodetic survey is known as The sole accuracy requirement for fourth-order triangu-
triangulation. Triangulation consists of the measurement lation is that the positions be located without any appreciable
of the angles of a series of triangles. The principle of error on maps compiled on the basis of the control. Fourth-
triangulation is based on plane trigonometry. If the distance order control is done primarily as mapping control.
along one side of the triangle and the angles at each end are
accurately measured, the other two sides and the remaining 207. Trilateration, Traverse, And Vertical Surveying
angle can be computed. In practice, all of the angles of
every triangle are measured to provide precise Trilateration involves measuring the sides of a chain of
measurements. Also, the latitude and longitude of one end triangles or other polygons. From them, the distance and
of the measured side along with the length and direction direction from A to B can be computed. Figure 207 shows this
(azimuth) of the side provide sufficient data to compute the process.
latitude and longitude of the other end of the side. Traverse involves measuring distances and the angles
The measured side of the base triangle is called a between them without triangles for the purpose of
baseline. Measurements are made as carefully and computing the distance and direction from A to B. See
accurately as possible with specially calibrated tapes or Figure 207.
wires of Invar, an alloy with a very low coefficient of Vertical surveying is the process of determining
expansion. The tape or wires are checked periodically elevations above mean sea-level. In geodetic surveys executed
against standard measures of length. primarily for mapping, geodetic positions are referred to an
To establish an arc of triangulation between two ellipsoid, and the elevations of the positions are referred to the
widely separated locations, the baseline may be measured geoid. However, for satellite geodesy the geoidal heights must
and longitude and latitude determined for the initial points be considered to establish the correct height above the geoid.
at each location. The lines are then connected by a series of Precise geodetic leveling is used to establish a basic
adjoining triangles forming quadrilaterals extending from network of vertical control points. From these, the height of
each end. All angles of the triangles are measured other positions in the survey can be determined by supple-
repeatedly to reduce errors. With the longitude, latitude, mentary methods. The mean sea-level surface used as a
and azimuth of the initial points, similar data is computed reference (vertical datum) is determined by averaging the
for each vertex of the triangles, thereby establishing hourly water heights for a specified period of time at
triangulation stations, or geodetic control stations. The specified tide gauges.
coordinates of each of the stations are defined as geodetic There are three leveling techniques: differential,
coordinates. trigonometric, and barometric. Differential leveling is the
Triangulation is extended over large areas by most accurate of the three methods. With the instrument
connecting and extending series of arcs to form a network locked in position, readings are made on two calibrated
or triangulation system. The network is adjusted so as to staffs held in an upright position ahead of and behind the
reduce observational errors to a minimum. A denser distri- instrument. The difference between readings is the
bution of geodetic control is achieved by subdividing or difference in elevation between the points.
filling in with other surveys. Trigonometric leveling involves measuring a vertical
There are four general classes or orders of triangu- angle from a known distance with a theodolite and
lation. First-order (primary) triangulation is the most computing the elevation of the point. With this method,
precise and exact type. The most accurate instruments and vertical measurement can be made at the same time
rigorous computation methods are used. It is costly and horizontal angles are measured for triangulation. It is,
time-consuming, and is usually used to provide the basic therefore, a somewhat more economical method but less
framework of control data for an area, and the determi- accurate than differential leveling. It is often the only
nation of the figure of the Earth. The most accurate first- mechanical method of establishing accurate elevation control
order surveys furnish control points which can be in mountainous areas.
interrelated with an accuracy ranging from 1 part in 25,000 In barometric leveling, differences in height are
over short distances to approximately 1 part in 100,000 for determined by measuring the differences in atmospheric
long distances. pressure at various elevations. Air pressure is measured by
Second-order triangulation furnishes points closer mercurial or aneroid barometer, or a boiling point
together than in the primary network. While second-order thermometer. Although the accuracy of this method is not
surveys may cover quite extensive areas, they are usually as great as either of the other two, it obtains relative heights
tied to a primary system where possible. The procedures are very rapidly at points which are fairly far apart. It is used in
less exacting and the proportional error is 1 part in 10,000. reconnaissance and exploratory surveys where more
Third-order triangulation is run between points in a accurate measurements will be made later or where a high
secondary survey. It is used to densify local control nets and degree of accuracy is not required.
GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION 21
Figure 207. Triangulation, trilateration, and traverse.
MODERN GEODETIC SYSTEMS
208. Development of the World Geodetic System development of WGS 66, large quantities of additional data
had become available from both Doppler and optical satellites,
By the late 1950’s the increasing range and sophisti- surface gravity surveys, triangulation and trilateration surveys,
cation of weapons systems had rendered local or national high precision traverses, and astronomic surveys.
datums inadequate for military purposes; these new In addition, improved capabilities had been developed in
weapons required datums at least continental, if not global, both computers and computer software. Continued research in
in scope. In response to these requirements, the U.S. computational procedures and error analyses had produced
Department of Defense generated a geocentric (earth- better methods and an improved facility for handling and com-
centered) reference system to which different geodetic bining data. After an extensive effort extending over a period
networks could be referred, and established compatibility of approximately three years, the Committee completed the
between the coordinate systems. Efforts of the Army, Navy, development of the Department of Defense World Geodetic
and Air Force were combined, leading to the development System 1972 (WGS 72).
of the DoD World Geodetic System of 1960 (WGS 60). Further refinement of WGS 72 resulted in the new World
In January 1966, a World Geodetic System Committee Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84), now referred to as
was charged with the responsibility for developing an im- simply WGS. For surface navigation, WGS 60, 66, 72 and the
proved WGS needed to satisfy mapping, charting, and new WGS 84 are essentially the same, so that positions
geodetic requirements. Additional surface gravity observa- computed on any WGS coordinates can be plotted directly on
tions, results from the extension of triangulation and the others without correction.
trilateration networks, and large amounts of Doppler and opti- The WGS system is not based on a single point, but
cal satellite data had become available since the development many points, fixed with extreme precision by satellite fixes
of WGS 60. Using the additional data and improved tech- and statistical methods. The result is an ellipsoid which fits
niques, the Committee produced WGS 66 which served DoD the real surface of the Earth, or geoid, far more accurately
needs following its implementation in 1967. than any other. The WGS system is applicable worldwide.
The same World Geodetic System Committee began All regional datums can be referenced to WGS once a
work in 1970 to develop a replacement for WGS 66. Since the survey tie has been made.
22 GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION
209. The North American Datum of 1983 Conversion of new edition charts to the new datums,
either WGS 84 or NAD 83, involves converting reference
The Office of Coast Survey of the National Ocean points on each chart from the old datum to the new, and
Service (NOS), NOAA, is responsible for charting United adjusting the latitude and longitude grid (known as the
States waters. From 1927 to 1987, U.S. charts were based graticule) so that it reflects the newly plotted positions. This
on North American Datum 1927 (NAD 27), using the adjustment of the graticule is the only difference between
Clarke 1866 ellipsoid. In 1989, the U.S. officially switched charts which differ only in datum. All charted features
to NAD 83 (navigationally equivalent to WGS) for all remain in exactly the same relative positions.
mapping and charting purposes, and all new NOAA chart
The Global Positioning System (GPS) has transformed
production is based on this new standard.
the science of surveying, enabling the establishment of
The grid of interconnected surveys which criss-crosses
the United States consists of some 250,000 control points, precise ties to WGS in areas previously found to be too
each consisting of the latitude and longitude of the point, remote to survey to modern standards. As a result, new
plus additional data such as elevation. Converting the NAD charts are increasingly precise as to position of features.
27 coordinates to NAD 83 involved recomputing the The more recent a chart’s date of publishing, the more
position of each point based on the new NAD 83 datum. In likely it is that it will be accurate as to positions. Navigators
addition to the 250,000 U.S. control points, several should always refer to the title block of a chart to determine
thousand more were added to tie in surveys from Canada, the date of the chart, the date of the surveys and sources
Mexico, and Central America. used to compile it, and the datum on which it is based.
DATUMS AND NAVIGATION
210. Datum Shift essary. An offset can sometimes be established if the ship's
actual position can be determined with sufficient accuracy,
One of the most serious impacts of different datums on and this offset applied to GPS positions in the local area.
navigation occurs when a navigation system provides a fix But remember that since a datum shift is not linear, this off-
based on a datum different from that used for the nautical set is only applicable locally.
chart. The resulting plotted position may be different from Another effect on navigation occurs when shifting
the actual location on that chart. This difference is known between charts that have been compiled using different
as a datum shift. datums. If a position is replotted on a chart of another datum
Modern electronic navigation systems have software using latitude and longitude, the newly plotted position will
installed that can output positions in a variety of datums, not match with respect to other charted features. The datum
eliminating the necessity for applying corrections. All elec- shift may be avoided by transferring positions using
tronic charts produced by NGA are compiled on WGS and bearings and ranges to common points. If datum shift
are not subject to datum shift problems as long as the GPS conversion notes for the applicable datums are given on the
receiver is outputting WGS position data to the display sys- charts, positions defined by latitude and longitude may be
tem. The same is true for NOAA charts of the U.S., which replotted after applying the noted correction.
are compiled on NAD 83 datum, very closely related to The positions given for chart corrections in the Notice to
WGS. GPS receivers default to WGS, so that no action is Mariners reflect the proper datum for each specific chart and
necessary to use any U.S.-produced electronic charts. edition number. Due to conversion of charts based on old
To automate datum conversions, a number of datum trans- datums to more modern ones, and the use of many different
formation software programs have been written that will convert datums throughout the world, chart corrections intended for
from any known datum to any other, in any location. MSPGEO- one edition of a chart may not necessarily be safely plotted on
TRANS is such a program. The amount of datum shift between any other.
two different datums is not linear. That is, the amount of shift is a As noted, datum shifts are not constant throughout a
function of the position of the observer, which must be specified given region, but vary according to how the differing
for the shift to be computed. Varying differences of latitude and datums fit together. For example, the NAD 27 to NAD 83
longitude between two different datums will be noted as one's lo- conversion resulted in changes in latitude of 40 meters in
cation changes. Miami, 11 meters in New York, and 20 meters in Seattle.
There are still a few NGA-produced paper charts, and Longitude changes for this conversion amounted to 22
a number of charts from other countries, based on datums meters in Miami, 35 meters in New York, and 93 meters in
other than WGS. If the datum of these charts is noted in the Seattle.
title block of the chart, most GPS receivers can be set to out- Most charts produced by NGA and NOAA show a
put position data in that datum, eliminating the datum shift “datum note.” This note is usually found in the title block
problem. If the datum is not listed, extreme caution is nec- or in the upper left margin of the chart. According to the
GEODESY AND DATUMS IN NAVIGATION 23
year of the chart edition, the scale, and policy at the time of correction is made on two charts based on different da-
production, the note may say “World Geodetic System tums, the positions for the same feature may differ
1972 (WGS-72)”, “World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS- slightly. This difference is equal to the datum shift be-
84)”, or “World Geodetic System (WGS).” A datum note tween the two datums for that area.
for a chart for which satellite positions can be plotted • Try to determine the source and datum of positions of
without correction will read: “Positions obtained from temporary features, such as drill rigs. In general they are
satellite navigation systems referred to (Reference Datum) given in the datum used in the area in question. Since
can be plotted directly on this chart.” these are precisely positioned using satellites, WGS is
NGA reproductions of foreign charts will usually be in the normal datum. A datum correction, if needed, might
the datum or reference system of the producing country. In be found on a chart of the area.
these cases a conversion factor is given in the following
• Remember that if the datum of a plotted feature is not
format: “Positions obtained from satellite navigation
known, position inaccuracies may result. It is wise to
systems referred to the (Reference Datum) must be moved
allow a margin of error if there is any doubt about the
[Link] minutes (Northward/Southward) and [Link] minutes
datum.
(Eastward/ Westward) to agree with this chart.”
Some charts cannot be tied in to WGS because of lack • Know how the datum of the positioning system you
of recent surveys. Currently issued charts of some areas are are using relates to your chart. GPS and other mod-
based on surveys or use data obtained in the Age of Sail. ern positioning systems use WGS datum. If your
The lack of surveyed control points means that they cannot chart is on any other datum, you must program the
be properly referenced to modern geodetic systems. In this system to use the chart’s datum, or apply a datum
case there may be a note that says: “Adjustments to WGS correction when plotting GPS positions on the chart.
cannot be determined for this chart.” For more information regarding geodetic datums visit
A few charts may have no datum note at all, but may the link provided in Figure 210.
carry a note which says: “From various sources to (year).”
In these cases there is no way for the navigator to determine
the mathematical difference between the local datum and
WGS positions. However, if a radar or visual fix can be
accurately determined, and an offset established as noted
above. This offset can then be programmed into the GPS
receiver.
To minimize problems caused by differing datums:
• Plot chart corrections only on the specific charts and edi- Figure 210.
tions for which they are intended. Each chart correction [Link]
is specific to only one edition of a chart. When the same atum_f.html