CHAPTER 4 – Composition atmosphere.

and Structure
There were obviously elements,
such as water vapour and carbon dioxide that
of the Earth’s
Atmospheric Composition
Atmosphere
contained oxygen atoms.

ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The composition of the atmosphere during the Water vapour and carbon dioxide, molecules
formation of the Earth approximately 4.5 billion containing oxygen, had been released into the
years ago, and even thereafter, differed early atmosphere through volcanic activities
significantly from the present atmosphere. The through the lithosphere and lower hydrosphere.
evolution of the atmosphere went through In the next section we will try to explain how
several phases, which eventually led to the oxygen atoms have been separated from the
relative stable composition we have today. The water vapour and carbon dioxide molecules to
current composition of the atmosphere allows release oxygen molecules (atmospheric oxygen:
for conditions that are favourable for the O2) and atoms into the atmosphere.
development and existence of life on Earth. This
atmosphere is not only suitable for internal life
Origin of atmospheric oxygen
functions such as breathing and photosynthesis,
but also protects life from harmful solar There are two possible known sources of
radiation. atmospheric oxygen namely:

Scientists are still uncertain about the original • Dissociation of water (process through energy
formation and evolution of ancient from ultraviolet solar radiation):
atmospheres, but various theories have been 2H2 O → 2H2 + O2
proposed. The prevailing believe is that the
Earth formed through a process where no gases
were present (by solid materials and • Photosynthesis reaction (process through
meteorites). Gasses that might have been energy from visible solar radiation or light):
present were lost in space soon after the
H2 O + CO2 → {CH2 O} + O2
formation of the Earth.
Both reactions involve the absorption of solar
9
The Earth formed approximately 4.5 x 10 (4 500 radiation implying that the input energy from
000 000) years ago. Since it is hypothesized that the sun contributed significantly to the
no atmosphere existed at the formation of the formation of the present atmosphere.
Earth, it is believed that the present atmosphere
came into existence as a result of the release of
substances from the Earth’s interior, mainly Life and photosynthesis
through volcanic explosions. The gaseous
It is believed that the first single celled
emissions from volcanoes are:
organisms that appeared about 4 x 109 (4
billion) years ago existed in an oxygen free
Water vapour in the form of steam (85%)
environment. At a later stage, primitive forms of
Carbon dioxide (10%)
plant life started to release small amounts of
Other gases like nitrogen and sulphur (5%)
oxygen into the atmosphere through a process
known as photosynthesis.
It is important to note that one of the most
important substances responsible for life on
Earth, namely oxygen, was not in the original

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43
Photosynthesis led to a rapid build-up of oxygen Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
in the atmosphere, which also resulted in the
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) enters the atmosphere by
formation of atmospheric ozone (O3) and
such processes as human and animal breathing,
eventually the formation of the ozone layer in
the decay and burning of materials containing
the upper atmosphere. The ozone layer is
carbon, and volcanic activity. It is largely
essential for the existence of life on Earth since
removed from the atmosphere by plant life.
it filters out incoming solar radiation, which is
harmful for living organisms, in the ultraviolet About 99% of the Earth's carbon dioxide is
part of the spectrum. dissolved in the waters of the oceans. However,
the solubility varies with the temperature.
As mentioned earlier the chemical reaction of
Hence carbon dioxide enters or leaves the
photosynthesis may be written as
oceans as a result of temperature changes. This
H2 O + CO2 → {CH2 O} + O2 affects the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the air.
Note that both water vapour (H2O) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) are molecules that were originally It is estimated that the annual amount of carbon
released by volcanic activity. The process of dioxide entering and leaving the air represents
photosynthesis resulted in the “cycle to about one tenth of the total carbon-dioxide
increased oxygen and life”: content of the atmosphere. The concentration
of carbon dioxide near the ground is variable.
Near the ground in cities it is high.
More oxygen
Increased
Photosynthesis
Earth’s different spheres

More abundant Less ultra violet Lithosphere: the solid, rocky crust
plant life radiation covering the entire planet. This crust is
inorganic and is composed of minerals.
More access to Biosphere: all living organisms.
visible radiation
Atmosphere: the body of air which
Figure 4.1: Cycle of photosynthesis surrounds earth

For every oxygen molecule (O2) formed through Hydrosphere: all the water on or near the
photosynthesis, one molecule {CH2 O} that earth - oceans, rivers, lakes, and moisture
contains carbon (C) is incorporated into an in the air
organic compound {CH2 O} (hydro carbon). Most
of these molecules are eventually oxidized
through a reaction known as respiration The burning of fossil fuels releases CH2O
molecules captured over millions of years in the
{CH2 O} + O2 → H2 O + CO2
form of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Respiration allows water vapour and carbon There are indications that the rate of removal of
dioxide to be released into the atmosphere. carbon dioxide from the Earth’s atmosphere is
However, for every few tens of thousands of not large enough to keep pace with the
CH2O molecules oxidized, one molecule escapes increasing rate of input due to the burning of
oxidation by being buried or “fossilized” as fossil fossil fuels. At the present rate of fuel
fuels. consumption, man burns in one year (release of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere) what will

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44
take photosynthesis about a thousand years to
produce. It is well known that carbon dioxide is
a greenhouse gas that heats the atmosphere.
The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has
been rising steadily since the early part of this
century. By adding additional amounts of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, one creates a
warmer atmosphere. The present rate of
increase is roughly half as large as the rate at
which CO2 is being added to the atmosphere by
the burning of fossil fuels. This process is
Figure 4.2: Diagram to show the water cycle on Earth
currently known as human induced (or (Sketch by Elizabeth Morales – [Link], 2002)
anthropogenic) greenhouse warming.

Present composition of the atmosphere

Water Vapour in the atmosphere
Because of the nearly complete removal of
The atmosphere is never completely dry. Water water and carbon dioxide by the processes
vapour is always present, but in varying described above, nitrogen, which is also
amounts. In hot tropical coastal areas, it may released into the atmosphere by volcanic
reach a concentration of about 3% of the mass emissions, has become the dominant gaseous
of a sample of air. By contrast, in some localities constituent of the Earth’s atmosphere. The
it occurs in such small proportions that it is three most important gases in the current
difficult to measure. atmosphere are:
Nitrogen (N2) 75%,
It is remarkable that relatively small amounts of
water vapour can produce such great variations Oxygen (O2) 23% and
in the weather. This is largely due to the
Argon (A) <1%.
changes which occur in its concentration in the
troposphere, particularly below about 6 km, Remaining compounds (totalling less than 1%)
where a high proportion of the moisture lies. It are: Water vapour (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2),
first enters the atmosphere from the surface of Neon (Ne), Helium (He), Krypton (Kr), Hydrogen
the Earth by evaporation from water surfaces (H), Ozone (O3).
and by transpiration from plant life. Water
vapour later changes to the liquid or solid state,
and finally returns to the Earth's surface as dew, PROFILE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
frost, drizzle, rain, snow or hail. This is known as
the water cycle. Vertical sectors in the atmosphere

On average, the concentration of water vapour Meteorologists realize that it is important to

in the atmosphere decreases with altitude. consider the atmosphere as a whole, if they are
However, from time to time this distribution to predict its future behaviour. Increasing use is
may be reversed in some parts of the being made of satellites, rockets and electronic
atmosphere. equipment to study the upper atmosphere. At
the same time, surface meteorological networks
are being extended throughout the world.

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45
 It is, however, often convenient to study Properties of the Troposphere
particular regions of the atmosphere. It is
The lowest temperature layer of the
always necessary to keep in mind that events in
atmosphere is called the troposphere. The
one region affect those occurring in other parts
troposphere is approximately 10km in altitude
of the atmosphere.
over South Africa but may extent to 20km over
Average vertical temperature profiles of the the tropics, with a positive temperature lapse
atmosphere were first measured by manned rate (T decreases with altitude). In some parts of
balloon flights. A general decrease in air the troposphere there may be a shallow layer in
temperature (temperature lapse rate) was which the temperature increases with height.
recorded within the lowest 10km of the Such a layer is called a temperature inversion.
atmosphere. The normal temperature lapse rate Above the troposphere one finds the
as measured when one moves vertically up in tropopause, with breaks occurring in the vicinity
the atmosphere has an average value of of jet streams. The height of the tropopause
6.5oCkm-1 (also referred to as the environmental varies by day, by season and by latitude since it
temperature lapse rate) is highly variable but is influenced by the temperature underneath.
never exceeds a value of 10 oCkm-1 at altitudes Multiple and overlapping tropopauses occur in
not to close to ground level. middle latitudes and the picture of daily charts
is often very complex. In addition, rapid changes
Different vertical temperature profiles exist
in the temperature and altitude of the
throughout the atmosphere. This provides a
tropopause may occur in any particular locality.
framework for dividing the atmosphere in
The moving weather systems and the associated
distinctive thermal layers as indicated in Figure
clouds that affect our daily lives are almost
4.3. Most weather activities that influence man
entirely confined to the troposphere. As these
occur in the troposphere. Note the increase in
systems change their positions, the
temperature in the stratosphere caused by
characteristics of the tropopause vary in time
ozone processes.
and place.

Properties of the Stratosphere

Teisserenc de Bort (French meteorologist: 1855

– 1930) and Richard Assmann (German
meteorologist: 1845 – 1918) both discovered a
layer with unique temperature properties above
the altitude of approximately 10km. This layer,
where temperatures usually remain constant or
increase with altitude, was called the
stratosphere. This increase is due to the
presence of stratospheric ozone which absorbs
UV radiation from the sun. The boundary
between the troposphere and stratosphere is
known as the tropopause. With the invention of
the radiosonde in 1927 upper atmospheric
measurement became much more affordable.
Figure 4.3: Temperature profile of the layers of the atmosphere
(James, 2014) Radiosondes on weather balloons are capable to
measure temperatures and other
meteorological variables up to about 40km. At a

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46
height of about 50 km, temperature ceases to extend to an altitude of about 400 km; during
rise. This forms the top boundary called the active periods of the Sun it may extend still
Stratopause. higher to about 500 km. The composition of the
atmosphere changes considerably in the
Commercial airlines typically cruise in the lower
thermosphere. The molecules of many of the
stratosphere (9-12km) to optimize fuel economy
gases are separated into their individual atoms
due to lower air density (hence lower drag on
by the action of X-rays and ultraviolet radiation
the air frame). It also stays above the turbulent
from the Sun.
weather found in the troposphere and thereby
creates a more comfortable flight for There are also fewer tendencies for the gases to
passengers. mix, and the heavier molecules and atoms settle
out from the others under the action of gravity.
As the altitude increases, the heavier nitrogen
Properties of the Mesosphere molecules give way to oxygen atoms and
ultimately light hydrogen atoms predominate at
At an altitude of approximately 50 km the
very high levels. Ionisation is important in the
temperature ceases to rise. The layer above the
thermosphere, because ions and electrons can
stratosphere, where temperatures decrease
remain free for a sufficiently long period of time.
again, is called the mesosphere with the
It is less persistent in the mesosphere where it
stratopause the intersection between the
normally only exists during the daytime. At the
stratosphere and mesosphere. The temperature
higher pressures in the troposphere, the
generally decreases with height in the
recombination of positive and electrically
mesosphere until it reaches a value of -95oC or
charged particles takes place even more easily.
lower at about 80 km. This level is the top of the
mesosphere and is called the mesopause.

The mesopause marks the end of what can be

regarded as homogeneous air. Up to this level
the gaseous composition of the atmosphere is
nearly constant, except for variable amounts of
water vapour and ozone. Sometimes the region
below the mesopause is known as the
homosphere. The homosphere therefore
includes the troposphere, the stratosphere and
the mesosphere. The temperatures at the
mesopause are lower than at any other level in
the upper troposphere since the air density is
lower than in lower parts of the atmosphere.
There are thus fewer air molecules to absorb Figure 4.4: Atmospheric layers that includes the
homosphere and heterosphere.
incoming electromagnetic radiation from the
Sun.

Properties of the Thermosphere The Ionosphere

The last layer (above the mesopause) in the The regions where ionisation is more persistent
vertical temperature profile is the in the thermosphere and the mesosphere form
thermosphere. The thermosphere is the region the ionosphere. The ionosphere is not a distinct
of rising temperatures above the mesopause. layer, but rather a series of regions in parts of
When the Sun activity is low this increase may the mesosphere and thermosphere where

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47
ionisation occurs. The importance of the Why is ozone important?
ionosphere lies in the fact that the electrons in
Ozone absorbs virtually all of the harmful short
particular are capable of reflecting radio waves
wave ultraviolet (UV) radiation (wavelengths
Ionization is the process by which an atom or a
between 230 and 290 nm) that enters the
molecule acquires a negative or positive charge
atmosphere from the sun so that it never
by gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often
reaches the troposphere. Without ozone, the
in conjunction with other chemical changes.
Sun’s intense UV radiation would sterilize the
High-energy radiation from the Sun has knocked
Earth’s surface. UV radiation from the sun
electrons loose from their parent atoms and
affects nearly all living organisms. UV-B causes
molecules and the heavier molecules and atoms
damage at the molecular level to the
settle out from the others under the action of
fundamental building block of life—
gravity.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
This layer stretches up from about 48 km – 965
km and consists of an abundant number of
electrons and ionized atoms and molecules. As Effect of exposure to UV-B radiation
the altitude increases, the heavier nitrogen
Scientists determine UV-B exposure at the
molecules give way to oxygen atoms and
surface in two ways:
ultimately light hydrogen atoms predominate at
very high levels. This dynamic region grows and Direct measurements with instruments on the
shrinks based on solar conditions ground. These ground-based instruments can
tell us the amount of UV-B radiation reaching
the surface at their exact locations.
The exosphere
Because the number of these ground-based
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere, from instruments is limited by cost and by the
the top of the thermosphere up to ~10,000 km. inaccessibility of many locations around the
Since there is no clear upper boundary of this globe, and because the amount of UV-B
layer, it gradually fades into outer space. radiation can vary enormously from one specific
Density of air is extremely low resulting in location to another, we depend on data from
collisions between air particles becoming rare. satellites for long-term, global-scale
Although the exosphere is technically part of measurements of UV-B exposure. Satellite data
Earth's atmosphere, in many ways it is part of are greatly contributing to scientists’
outer space. Many satellites, including the understanding of the effects of UV-B radiation
International Space Station (ISS), orbit within
The main effect of exposure to UV-B are found
the exosphere or below.
in human health. UV-B induces skin cancer by
causing mutation in DNA and suppressing
certain activities of the immune system. It is also
OZONE
responsible for common eye problems in
Ozone (O3) is one of the trace gases naturally
humans.
present in the atmosphere and plays an
important role. It is present in low In Crops UV-B impairs photosynthesis in many
concentrations throughout the Earth’s species. Over-exposure to UV-B reduces size,
atmosphere. The large amount of ozone in the productivity, and quality in many of the crop
stratosphere is often referred to as the “ozone plant species. Over-exposure to ultraviolet
layer.” In total, ozone makes up only 0.6 ppm of radiation can change the flowering times of
the atmosphere. some kinds of plants and therefore will affect

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48
the animals that depend on them. It also • Reflectivity of the Earth’s Surface (Albedo):
reduces photosynthesis by phytoplankton in Albedo is the ability of a surface to reflect
surface water and influences biogeochemical radiation. For example, snow covered areas will
cycles. The amount of UV radiation reaching have a high albedo, hence reflecting large
earth’s surface depend on: amounts of radiation as opposed to absorbing
this radiation.
• Cloud Cover: Each water droplet in a cloud
scatters some incoming UV radiation back into
space, so a thick cover of clouds protects from
O3 concentrations in the Atmosphere
almost all UV. The larger the % of the sky that is
covered by clouds, the less UV reaches the The concentration of O3 varies with altitude,
ground. The opaquer the cloud, the less UV-B. latitude and time. Most ozone forms in the
However, thin or broken cloud cover can be upper stratosphere as a result of processes that
deceiving to people who are sunbathing, and include the absorption of ultraviolet radiation.
the result is severe sunburn. The ozone molecules then tend to sink in the
atmosphere and accumulate in the lower
• Ozone in the Stratosphere: As we have already
stratosphere. 90% of the ozone in the
seen, O3 is important in reducing the amount of
atmosphere occurs in the stratosphere,
UV radiation reaching the lower atmosphere.
between ~ 10 and 50 km altitude. Small
• Oblique angle of sunlight reaching the surface: amounts of ozone are also produced in the air
The sun strikes most of the Earth at an oblique near the Earth's surface, as a result of electrical
angle. In this way, the number of UV photons is discharges and pollution. However, the
spread over a wider surface area, lowering the concentration of ozone at any particular altitude
amount of incoming radiation at any given spot, varies considerably, due to the circulation of the
compared to its intensity when the sun is atmosphere.
directly overhead. In addition, the amount of
Ozone levels change as part of natural cycles on
atmosphere crossed by sunlight is greater at
Earth. Levels vary slightly with seasonal changes
oblique angles than when the sun is directly
(e.g. winter to summer), wind circulation
overhead. Thus, the light travels through more
patterns, and solar cycles. If a large volcano
ozone before reaching the Earth’s surface,
erupts, it can send enough material into the
thereby increasing the amount of UV-B that is
stratosphere to increase the breakdown of
absorbed by molecules of ozone and reducing
ozone
UV-B exposure at the surface.
Over the Earth’s surface, the ozone layer’s
• Aerosols: Unlike clouds, aerosols in the
average thickness is about 300 Dobson Units or
troposphere, such as dust and smoke, not only
scatter but also absorb UV-B radiation. Usually
the UV reduction by aerosols is only a few Dobson Units
percent, but in regions of heavy smoke or dust,
The most common unit for measuring
aerosol particles can absorb more than 50
ozone concentration is the Dobson unit.
percent of the radiation.
1 Dobson Unit is the number of molecules
• Water Depth: UV-B exposure decreases rapidly
at increasing depths in the water column. In of ozone that would be required to create
other words, water strongly absorb and scatter a layer of pure ozone 0.01 mm thick at a
incoming UV-B radiation. temperature of 0 º C and a pressure of 1
atmosphere (the air pressure at the
• Elevation: Living organisms at high elevations
surface of the Earth).
are generally exposed to more solar radiation

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49
a layer that is 3 mm thick. How much is this per billion (0.00001 percent). According to the
compared to the rest of the atmosphere? Environmental Protection Agency, exposure to
ozone levels of greater than 80 parts per billion
If all of the air in a vertical column that extends
for 8 hours or longer is unhealthy. Such
from the ground up to space were collected and
squeezed together at a temperature of 0 concentrations occur in or near cities during
degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere, periods where the atmosphere is warm and
that column would be 8 km thick. stable. The harmful effects can include throat
and lung irritation or aggravation of asthma or
emphysema.

Ozone (O3) is formed through a process where

oxygen atoms (O) combine with oxygen molecules
(O2). This reaction that produces ozone releases
STEP 1:A energy to an extra molecule (M) in the vicinity of the
reaction, which serves as a catalyst. This catalyst is
O O2 M usually nitrogen (N).

The catalyst M vibrates faster as a result of the

heat energy gained. When molecules of a gas start to
vibrate it will result in an increase in gas
STEP 2: B temperature. The production of ozone therefore
leads to an increase in stratospheric temperatures.

O3 M

Virtually all of the harmful short wave ultraviolet

UV radiation
(UV) radiation (wavelengths between 230 and 290
nm) that enters the atmosphere from the sun is
absorbed as energy by ozone (O3) in the
C
STEP 3: stratosphere, and therefore never reaches the
troposphere, let alone the surface of the Earth. The
O3 UV energy absorbed causes for ozone molecules (O3)
to break apart to form oxygen atoms (O) and oxygen
molecules (O2). The UV absorbed by ozone is very
harmful for live on Earth.

The UV energy absorbed by ozone results in the

formation of oxygen atoms (O) and oxygen molecules
D (O2), which brings us back to Step 1 from where the
STEP 4: process is repeated.

O O2

In the troposphere near the Earth’s surface, the How Ozone is formed in the atmosphere
natural concentration
Figure 4.5: of ozone
The cycle of Ozone in the is about 10 parts
atmosphere

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50
Ozone molecules (O3) consist of three atoms of spray can propellants. Very little chlorine exists
oxygen. The concentration of ozone varies with naturally in the atmosphere. But CFCs are an
altitude, latitude and time. excellent way of introducing chlorine into the
ozone layer. The ultraviolet radiation at this
During the formation of ozone the following
altitude breaks down CFCs, freeing the chlorine.
elements or molecules are involved:
Under the proper conditions, this chlorine has
O: Oxygen atom the potential to destroy large amounts of ozone

O2: Oxygen molecule

O3: Ozone The Antarctic ozone hole

M: Catalyst (Nitrogen) The ozone concentration changes in seasons is a

natural cycle. The ozone hole is not technically a
The ozone cycle in the upper atmosphere may
“hole” where no ozone is present, but is actually
be explained as in Figure 4.5
a region of exceptionally depleted ozone in the
Ozone depletion in the atmosphere stratosphere over the Antarctic.

The enemies of O3 in the atmosphere are Satellite instruments gives us daily images of
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). It is an organic ozone over the Antarctic region. From the
compound that contains carbon, chlorine, and historical record it is known that total column
fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of ozone values less than 220 Dobson Units were
methane and ethane. A common subclass is the not observed prior to 1979. 220 Dobson Units is
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which used as the boundary of the region representing
contain hydrogen, as well. ozone loss. Using the daily snapshots of total
CFCs is a chemical compound developed back in column ozone, we can calculate the area on the
the 1930's as safe, non-toxic, non-flammable Earth that is enclosed by a line with values of
alternative to dangerous substances like 220 Dobson Units.

Figure 4.6: The process of ozone depletion ([Link], 2017)

ammonia for purposes of refrigeration and

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51
The depth and area of the ozone hole are ozone molecules. The ozone hole grows
determined by amounts of chlorine and throughout the early spring until temperatures
bromine in the Antarctic stratosphere. Very low warm and the polar vortex weakens, ending the
temperatures are needed to form polar isolation of the air in the polar vortex.
stratospheric clouds (PSCs). Year-to-year
variations in area and depth are caused by year-
to-year variations in temperature. Colder
conditions result in a larger area and lower
ozone values in the center of the hole.

Under normal atmospheric conditions, the two

chemicals that store most atmospheric chlorine
(hydrochloric acid, and chlorine nitrate) are
stable. But in the long months of polar darkness
over Antarctica in the winter, atmospheric
conditions are unusual. Because it is completely
dark, the air in the vortex gets so cold that EARTH
clouds form, even though the Antarctic air is
Figure 4.7: The polar vortex that peaks during winter
extremely thin and dry. Chemical reactions take
months to form the ozone hole in spring.
place that could not take place anywhere else in
the atmosphere. These unusual reactions can
occur only on the surface of polar stratospheric Each year, once the polar vortex breaks down in
cloud particles, which may be water, ice, or early summer, large quantities of air very low in
nitric acid, depending on the temperature. An ozone may be moving out of Antarctica and
endlessly circling whirlpool of stratospheric mixing in the general circulation of the winds of
winds called the polar vortex isolates the air in the Southern hemisphere. This results in an
the center. The polar vortex (a high-pressure cell increase of the ozone poor region which then
rotating anticlockwise) that forms above the forms the ozone hole during spring. During the
Antarctic continent is therefore noticeable following summer months ozone rich air fills the
stronger in winter months than during summer hole over Antarctica and oxone concentrations
months. This vortex acts as a shield that keeps return to normal over the region. As air from the
ozone rich air away from the southern polar surrounding latitudes mixes into the polar
region (Antarctica) during winter months. These region, the ozone-destroying forms of chlorine
reactions convert the inactive chlorine reservoir disperse. The ozone layer stabilizes until the
chemicals into more active forms, especially following spring.
chlorine gas (Cl2). As a result, ozone
It is important to note that the decrease (ozone
concentrations decrease during these months to
depletion) and the later increase in ozone
reach a minimum in early spring.
consentrations over the poles during the
changes in seasons is a natural cycle. When
When the sunlight returns to the South Pole in
scientists talk about the ozone hole, they are
October, UV light rapidly breaks the bond
talking about the destruction of stratospheric,
between the two chlorine atoms, releasing free
“good,” ozone. Ground-level, “bad,” ozone
chlorine into the stratosphere, where it takes
forms when nitrogen oxide gases from vehicle
part in reactions that destroy ozone molecules
and industrial emissions react with volatile
while regenerating the chlorine (known as a
organic compounds (carbon-containing
catalytic reaction). A catalytic reaction allows a
single chlorine atom to destroy thousands of

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52
chemicals that evaporate easily into the air, friendly. Since the Montreal Protocol came into
such as paint thinners effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the
most important CFCs have decreased.
However, human induced polution by the
release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) into the
atmosphere destroys more ozone in the "There are positive indications that the
stratosphere and therefore additionally ozone layer is on track to recovery
contributes to the expantion of the ozone hole towards the middle of the century"
(ozone depletion), especially during winter and
early spring months, allowing for harmfull short "The challenges that we face are still
wave radiation (UV) to reach the surface of the huge. The success of the Montreal
Earth. Protocol should encourage further action
Montreal protocol not only on the protection and recovery
of the ozone layer but also on climate. “
Can the process of Ozone depletion be stopped?
There is a general agreement among scientists Under-Secretary-General and UNEP
on the science of ozone depletion. Under the Executive Director Achim Steiner
sponsorship of the UN Environment Programme
(UNEP) and the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) the scientific community
issues periodic reports on the science of ozone
depletion. Over 300 scientists worldwide Read more in: THE HOLE IN THE SKY - Man’s
drafted and reviewed the most recent analysis. threat to the Ozone Layer by John Gribbin ISBN:
Provided that we stop producing ozone- 0 552 99329 8
depleting substances, ozone will be created
through natural processes that should return
the ozone layer to normal levels by about 2050.
Important that the world comply with the
Montreal Protocol (European Communities,
2007)

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that

Deplete the Ozone Layer was designed to
reduce the production and consumption of
ozone depleting substances in order to reduce
their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby
protect the earth’s fragile ozone Layer.
The original Montreal Protocol was agreed on
16 September 1987 and entered into force on 1
January 1989. It consists of 196 countries and
the EU are members.

January 2010 marked the complete phase out of

a significant group of ozone depleting
substances – the CFCs, halons and carbon
tetrachloride. CFCs can often be replaced by the
less damaging hydro-chlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) but these are not entirely ozone-

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53