CHAPTER 8 – Synoptic Circulation

RIDGES AND THROUGHS

Synoptic charts are useful for many reasons

including that they give information about the
current weather at a location and also a broader
picture of regional or global weather. Important
information, like the location and strength of low
pressure systems, severe weather, front, winds,
cloud cover, high pressure systems, and
temperatures are included on a surface analysis
map (sea-level or 850mb). The upper air pressure Figure 6.1: Schematic to show through and ridges in the
upper atmosphere
layers are typically :700 mb, 500 mb, and 300 mb
levels. Each pressure surface tends to correspond
to an approximate altitude above sea level Hand in hand with throughs and ridges, goes
REMEMBER: the pressure value (e.g., 500 mb), not convergence and divergence. Convergence refers
the altitude, is the constant value. Also remember to an area where air is accumulated, or flowing
that the atmosphere is a fluid – much like water into. In opposite divergence refers to an air where
but less dense. Movement in the atmosphere air is moving out of. We also know that air will
occurs in a wavelike manner. These ups and downs always flow from a low pressure high pressure
of the waves are called throughs and ridges. region to a low pressure in an attempt to cancel
out the imbalance. So then at the surface, air will
Troughs and ridges are properties of the
converge into a low-pressure surface. And diverge
atmospheric pressure field and can easily be seen
from a high-pressure surface. Why do we need to
on a weather map. Troughs are found near low
know this? If convergence is experienced at the
pressure areas. A trough is an extended region of
surface, it means convection takes place higher up
relatively low atmospheric pressure, often
in the atmosphere (Figure 6.2). The convergence
associated with fronts. Troughs may be at the
at one level in the atmosphere is countered by
surface, or aloft, or both under various conditions.
divergence at another. This phenomenon is called
Most troughs bring clouds, showers, and a wind
Dine’s compensation. You will learn in class how
shift, particularly following the passage of the
to identify convergence and divergence on a
trough. This results from convergence or
synoptic map.
"squeezing" which forces lifting of moist air
behind the trough line. Ridges are found near high
pressure. In the upper air a through will be found
where the lower height of the pressure level
occurs (Figure 6.1). The height of the 500 mb
surface is related to the (density averaged)
temperature of the atmosphere below 500 mb:
the higher the temperature, the higher the height
of the 500 mb level. So warmer than average
temperatures can be expected underneath ridges
(higher heights) and colder than average
temperatures can be expected underneath Figure 6.2: Schematic to show the relationship between
convergence and divergence between the lower and higher
troughs (lower heights). atmosphere

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In the southern Hemisphere the following rules patterns during summer and winter (Hurry and
apply to identify convergence and divergence: van Heerden, 1982).

In summary, the most important rain producing

systems over southern Africa are:
Convergence (Divergence) occur EAST (WEST)
In summer
of a surface through
• Westerly trough
Divergence (Convergence) occur EAST (WEST)
• Southward extending tropical Low
of an upper air through • Cut off low
• Tropical cyclones
• Ridging high
WINTER AND SUMMER CIRCULATION In winter

As you know, the patterns of pressure, wind, • Cold front trough

moisture etc. in the atmosphere change • Low pressure close to the land
constantly. But there are still certain basic • Cut off lows
features that occur at certain times. These • Long waves in winter
features are a result of the controlling factors that
modulates circulation such as latitude, altitude
We will consider some of the features in more
etc. The season also plays an important role
detail.
because of the movement closer to and further
away from the source of heat, namely the sun. In
summer, when our hemisphere is closer to the
sun, the south Atlantic and south Indian high-
pressure systems are situated further to the south
than in winter. The position of these strong high-
pressure systems plays a significant role in the
moisture feed into the country. Summer heating
over the sub-continent will lead to a heat low over
the Kalahari, with a tropical low further north over
southern Africa (the features of all these systems
will be explained later in this chapter). Coastal
lows and accompanying berg winds conditions are
often developing along the coast in summer.

In winter, the absence of heat lows over the

interior often results in the South Atlantic and
Indian highs to link across the land. This causes Figure 6. 3: Basic pressure distribution during summer
continuous subsidence and dry conditions. With (Hurry and van Heerden, 1982)

the northward movement of the high-pressure

systems, cold fronts are able to reach the country
during winter, but cloudiness and rainfall are The BIG question is always – where does the
normally only occurring along the southern parts moisture come from? As already stated, different
with occasional snow along the escarpment. scenarios occur at different times of the year. But
Figures 6.3 and 6.4 depict the basic pressure first some terminology (Figure 6.5).

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 The position of the ridging high is very important
in determining where the moisture source is.
During July (winter) the continental high will ridge
firmly over the interior and occurs further north
than in summer. A north-westerly on-shore flow
(with rain) is evident over the Peninsula due to
cold fronts reaching the country.

Meteograms

Specific weather systems and their characteristics

will now be looked at. The principles we have used
so far hold – iow cyclonic flow, geostropic wind
etc. But the characteristics of specific synoptic
systems that we find over SA will now be discussed
Figure 6. 4: Basic pressure distribution during winter in detail.
(Hurry and van Heerden, 1982)
A very useful tool to identify the properties of a
weather system is a meteogram. On a meteogram
Favourable conditions for rainfall in summer is
hourly observations are presented in a graphical
associated with a trough over the central interior.
format. In the meteogram, time is plotted along
The position of the trough shifts between wet and
the X axis, while the values of the different
dry years, being situated further to the west in a
weather parameters are plotted along the Y axis.
wet year. The trough is also deeper during wet
The most common weather parameters displayed
years. Convergence occurs in the trough and east
in a meteogram include precipitation,
of it. Moisture flows around the high over the
temperature and dew point temperature, cloud
Indian ocean into area of convergence. These are
cover, wind speed and direction and pressure.
favourable conditions for thundershowers. Dry air
Detail of how to interpret these graphs will be
circulates over the western interior.
discussed in class.

Northern Interior

Western Interior

Figure 6.5: Terminology used to explain where moisture is

coming from
Figure 6.6: Example of a meteogram showing temperature
(top graph), pressure (second graph) and wind direction and
peed (bottom two graphs)

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COLD FRONTS October. Cold fronts in the sub tropics usually
occur from 25°S to 40°S but on a few occasions as
A front is a boundary or transition zone between
far north as 15-20°S. SA falls outside the mid-
different air masses. These air masses could be
latitudes weather path for most of the year, and
cold and warm, or moist and dry. The zone may be
only the tail of the front reaches the country and
10 km across or it may be 100 km across, but from
not the low pressure itself. Cold fronts are most
one side of a front to the other, one clearly would
prevalent and most intense during the summer
sense that the properties of an air mass had
hemisphere winter but summer cold fronts are
changed significantly (e.g., contrasts in
not unknown in South Africa. The effect that cold
temperature and dew point, wind direction, cloud
front has on the weather during summer is much
cover, and on-going weather). The frontal zone
less intense than during colder months. Therefor
represents the leading edge of a wedge of
the definition for a cold front in the sub tropics is
cold/cool air.
important:
Four basic types of fronts can be identified,
namely:
• Cold front: replaces warm air at the surface
A cold front in the sub tropics is a narrow
• Warm front: replaces cold air at the surface
sloping layer with vertical extent of at least
• Stationary front: barely any movement
3 km and a temperature decrease
• Occluded front: Because cold fronts move
of at least 3ºC.
faster than warm fronts, they can catch up to
and overtake their related warm front. When
they do, an occluded front is formed. The
weather ahead of the cold occlusion is similar
to that of a warm front while that along and Figure 6.8 indicates the typical life cycle of a cold
behind the cold occlusion is similar to that of front. First there is a boundary, or front,
a cold front. separating warm air to the north from cold air to
the south. The front is often stationary but the
frontal wave may progress eastwards with time.
During the second stage a wave forms on the
front as an upper level disturbance embedded in
the jet stream moves over the front. The front
develops a "kink" where the wave is developing.
Precipitation starts to occur, heaviest along the
frontal boundary (indicated by the shading). The
third stage happens as the wave intensifies and
both cold and warm fronts become better
Figure 6.7: Simple diagram of an occluded front organized. The wave becomes a mature low-
([Link], 2017)
pressure system in stage 4, while the cold front,
moving faster than the warm front, "catches up"
A cold front, also called a mid-latitude cyclone,
with the warm front. In the fifth and final stage
occurs where the leading edge of a cold mass of
the cold front overtakes the warm front, an
air displace the warmer air ahead of it. The warm
occluded front form.
air ascends along the boundary while the cold air
sinks below it. If there is enough humidity, the
upward motion leads to condensation and to the The changes of weather at the surface before and
development of clouds and precipitation. In SA after a cold front has passed are listed in Table 6.1.
this occur frequently between March and

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Table 6.1: Characteristic horizontal changes in surface variables during the
passage of a cold front along the south coast of South Africa

Surface variables Pre-frontal During the front passage Post frontal

Wind direction NW to NE Gusty, Shifting SW

Lowest, then sudden

Pressure tendency Decrease steadily increase Increase steadily

Temperature Warm Sudden cooling Cold

Dew point High Sudden drop Falling steadily

Equivalent Potential temperature High

(Θe)

Sudden drop

Low

Cumulonimbus and Patchy altocumulus

Cloud Clear, becoming cumulus congestus /stratocumulus and
stratiform. Often producing frequent higher cirrus clouds
Cirrus, Cirrostratus showers along with fast
and then alto moving stratus
stratus fractus

Relative Humidity Low RH (Dry) Increase High RH (moist)

Fair to poor in haze Poor but improving Good except in

Visibility showers

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 escarpment in the east. Off- shore flow will be due
to the position of the subtropical anticyclones
influencing Southern African weather.

Most commonly in summer, and almost

exclusively in winter, a coastal low is associated
with an approaching cold front. They typically
precede a cold front by several hundred
kilometres. However, not all coastal lows are
associated with cold fonts, but they always
develop when a cold front approach.

Figure 6.8: Typical life cycle of a cold front (Eumetrain,

2017a)
BERGWINDS

The term “bergwind” are used to describe the hot

winds that occasionally occur in winter over the
COASTAL LOWS coastal belt of the Western Cape. Local inhabitants
in these areas named these common winds
The term coastal low is used to indicate the “bergwinds”. They are similar to the winds along
pressure minima that frequently propagate the Namibian coast (called “soopwa”) as well as in
anticyclonically around the southern African coast KwaZulu-Natal and southern Mozambique. These
(from west to east). Per definition a coastal low is winds are associated with coastal lows, but often
a small area of relatively lower pressure that also occurs in the absence of coastal lows.
occurs below 700 mb in the lower levels of the
atmosphere along the coast. It is therefore a The characteristics are that these winds blow off
shallow low-pressure system. shore, often ahead of a coastal low. Bergwinds
does not only occur in restricted areas in advance
Due to the clockwise airflow around the Coastal of coastal lows, but can occur whenever the wind
lows, weather changes from warm, dry and light blows off shore in association with a marked anti-
offshore wind conditions to cooler, moist and cyclone over the plateau. The winds will reach the
breezy onshore weather as the low propagates. surface. (Note: the seaward flow ahead of a
coastal low does not always extent to the surface).
Ahead of the coastal low system the
They bring along warm and dry air with
offshore wind (from the land to the sea) is warm
temperatures rising to above normal values.
and dry, while behind the coastal low the
Alongs the coasts these winds occur often
onshore wind (from the sea to the land) is cooler between March and September, and is the reason
and moist. for Port Nolloth’s reversal of the seasons with
warmer temperatures in winter than in summer
Two important conditions needed for a coastal
(Taljaard, 1972). Berg winds ussually blows during
low to develop are an escarpment and off-shore
daytime and die down in late afternoon / early
flow. The shallowness of the system is due to
evening.
stable air above 700 hPa and the terrain (high
ground / mountains / plateau) in the horizontal –
for example the escarpment and mountain ranges
along the west coast and the Drakensberg

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CUT OFF LOWS (COL) COLs typically last for 2-4 days over South Africa
(Molekwa, 2013). The contribution of rainfall
There are a number of weather systems that bring associated with the occurrence of COLs is found to
rain to South Africa and one of them is the Cut-off be approximate 40% annually along the coastal
Low. COLs are unstable, baroclinic systems. They areas, and less than 10% over the interior of the
are typically slow-moving systems that occurs in Eastern Cape Province. It often leads to flash
the mid-latitudes over a confined region and often flooding. Almost all winter rainfall in the summer
results in heavy rainfall. Cut-off Lows are a rainfall area of SA is due to COL.
common occurrence in South Africa, and have
been observed predominantly between March It is important for a forecaster to identify and
and May, and from September to November, but predict the development, intensification and
movement of COL systems due to the impact on
once in a while an unseasonal event hits our
people and infrastructure. The weather associated
shores. with these systems over SA are listed in Table 6.2.

A COL is defined by how it forms. It develops south Table 6.2: Weather associated with COL (Eumetrain,
of SA where the air in the mid-levels of the 2017b)

atmosphere over South Africa are generally from

west to east. When this flow is disturbed, a trough Parameter Description
forms (in a similar way that a river meanders). It
then deepens into a defined closed system that
extends to the surface. The trough can intensify Heavy rainfall; exceeding 50mm at
and develop into a low-pressure system. It will a given station over a 24 hour
become displayed equatorward (northward) of Precipitation
period. Snowfall
the main westerly flow, hence being cut-off from
the lows south of the country. Because it is no Very cold conditions, maximum
longer attached to the westerly pressure wave to Temperature temperatures < 10° C
the south, it loses all momentum and can just sit
for days, or move very slowly before dissipating Wind (incl.
(Taljaard, 1985). gusts) Gale force winds >17m/s

. Other
Very rough seas, total sea in
relevant
information excess of 4-6m.

CONTINENTAL TROPICAL LOWS (CTL)

It is only during late summer when the Inter

Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (Discussed in
more detail in Chapter 7) moves southwards to the
Figure 6.9: Areas of convergence, divergence and northern extremes of South Africa (South of 20S)
uplift associated with COL systems at the surface and
500 hPa (Eumetrain, 2017b) that continental tropical low-pressure systems
develop. They are very slow-moving systems that
produces heavy rainfall east of the trough.

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In the case of a CTL the low pressure system the equator and Coriolis force is important for the
must stand upright from 850 to 400hPa. This development of the clockwise rotation of TC in the
should be displaced by a ridge of high pressure Southern Hemisphere).
at the 200hPa level (Figure 6.10). CTL are warm
Favourable conditions for the development of TC
cored low-pressure systems. A core of high include warm humid air over a warm ocean with
average column temperatures should be surface temperature above 27OC. TC experience
present in the 500 to 300 hPa layer above enhanced relative humidity in middle
the surface low pressure system. troposphere. Enhanced relative vorticity in lower
troposphere (rotation of air). Another favorable
condition is where the vertical wind shift (shear)
is small i.o.w a small change in wind speed and -
direction from the surface of the earth to the
middle atmosphere exists. Condensation occurs
as a result of rising air, and latent heat is released.
Latent heat allows for a increase in air
temperature causing the air to rise even further.
But what are the important characteristics of TC
as a result of the abovementioned conditions for
it to develop? It is a small intense low-pressure
system (100 - 1000 km in diameter) with no fronts
occurring in the low-pressure region. The centre
Figure 6.10: Vertical structure of a CTL (Eumetrain, 2017c) of the tropical cyclone is known as the eye and is
about 50 km in diameter. The isobars are
symmetrical around the centre (eye) with a strong
The major weather associated with CTL are mainly
pressure gradient. The wind varies from 17 to 32
heavy precipitation to the east of the low. Many
ms-1.
flood events over southern Africa has been
associated with CTL. As these systems are Tropical cyclones will be dispersed when it is cut
associated with weak vertical wind shear and very off from its source of moisture. For example,
light steering winds in the mid troposphere, the when moving in over a continent (as a result of
convective cells which develop from them is semi- friction) or when moving over colder ocean (less
stationary, making them extreme precipitation moisture and convection).
efficient (Dyson and Van Heerden, 2001). The destruction from a tropical cyclone depends
on its intensity, size and location. The main effects
of TC include heavy rainfall, strong winds, large
TROPICAL CYCLONES (TC)
storm surges and tornadoes. The destruction
Mostly meteorologist in the Southern hemisphere caused by TC is a function of its intensity, size and
deals with westerly wind systems. The Westerlies location. TC acts to remove forest canopies,
are prevailing winds from the west in the middle change landscape, especially close to coastal
latitudes (30-60ºS). But in late summer, easterly regions where erosion occur due to reshaping of
tropical weather dominates over SA. The most sand dunes. Inland mudslides and landslides can
intense system, namely tropical cyclones, usually occur due to the heavy rainfall. Even after the
develop as a result of tropical disturbances within storm has passed devastation can continue.
the latitudes 5O and 20O north and south of the Standing water can cause the spreading of
geographical equator (the Coriolis force is zero on disease. Infrastructure damage can cause havoc

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Figure 6.11: Seven Tropical Cyclone basins, indicating typical paths and areas of origin ([Link], 2017).

and may also hamper rescue efforts. But despite

their devastating effects, TC can potentially bring
Question: How is TC named?
relief in drought stricken areas.
Different centres of the globe are responsible for
issuing cyclone warning for their area of
responsibility (Figure 6.11). Perth in Australia
issues warning for their part of the Indian Ocean
and names a cyclone accordingly. Our area is
covered by Reunion Island. The Reunion Météo-
France office issues warnings on tropical cyclones
within the SW Indian basin which is defined as the
waters of the Indian Ocean from the coast of
Africa to 90° E, south of the equator. As it crosses
from one area to the next the cyclone gets a new
name.
The TC season begins on August 1 and ends on the
subsequent July 31. On average 10 TC occur each
year in the SWIO basin. One out of five tropical
disturbances become a TC. Madagascar acts as a
barrier which prevents most TC to reach east
Africa. However, a few TCs originates in the
Madagascar channel. And on average tropical
systems are active 54 days during the season.

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