MZAN- TEPI UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS
DEPARTEMENT OF: SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTAL OF NETWORKING
Introduction
In today’s interconnected world, computer networks play a crucial role in facilitating
seamless communication and data transfer. A network is a collection of devices that
are linked together to share resources and information efficiently. To establish and
manage these networks, various networking devices are used, including modems,
routers, hubs, bridges, switches, network interface cards (NICs), and firewalls.
Each of these devices has a distinct function, contributing to the overall efficiency,
security, and performance of a network.

This document provides an in-depth analysis of the fundamental devices that form the
backbone of networking. It explores their working mechanisms, types, advantages,
disadvantages, and future advancements. By understanding these networking
components, individuals and organizations can make informed decisions when setting
up and maintaining their network infrastructures.
Fundamental devices of a computer network.

1. What is a Modem?
A modem is a type of network device that helps devices in getting connected with
internet. It converts digital data in a suitable format for analogue transmission.

Fig 1.1 modem

A modem is a type of network device that modulates and demodulates analog carrier
signals to encode and decode digital information for processing. Modem is a hardware
that transmits the data by modulating carrier wave signals to encode the digital
information. The receiver will demodulate the digital signal for recreating the original
digital information.

Modems are classified according to the maximum data (bit/s) that they can send in a
given time period. These are the variable-rate due to which they can be used over a
medium that has less than ideal characteristics.

While choosing a modem, you have to consider the following:

  Is data transmission through the chosen modem secure?

 What is the upload and download speed of the modem?

 How much is the cost of the modem? Is it affordable or expensive?

 What is the modem’s compatibility with the connected devices?

1.1. How does a modem work?

A modem works in the following step-by-step process:

 Data will be generated whenever data transmission is required. The computer

system generates the data in the digital form of 0s and 1s.

 The second step involves modulation which is a process of converting digital data
signals of computer into analog data signals that can travel on the internet. This
digital data is encoded on a carrier wave that can travel over an analog medium.

 Modulated data is the result of modulation which will be transmitted over

communication line to the modem that is receiving the modulated data.

 After this, the analog data signals from the internet are converted into digital data
signals by the modem that can be understood by computer systems. In this process,
the digital data from carrier wave is decoded.

 This demodulated data is sent to the computer for further usage. While
downloading the data received from the internet, the modem receives an incoming
analog signal and it demodulates this into digital data which is passed to the
computer.

1.2. Characteristics of a Modem

The following points highlight the characteristics of a modem:

 Modems are useful in converting digital signals into analog signals.

 They help in connecting the devices to the internet.

 Only a limited number of systems can be connected to the internet through a

modem.

 Modems are prone to cyber-attacks which reduces the probability of secure

transmission.

 The cost of a modem is dependent on the number of features it offers. More

inclusion of features will lead to an increase in the cost of modem.

 Modems slow down when it is connected to a hub.

 They are unable to track traffic between the LAN and the internet.
 Modems require RJ11 Jack to communicate with telephone lines and RJ45 for
connection with computers.

 For modems to work, device drives must be installed in the operating system for
configuration and communication.

 These devices must be configured with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and
computer for using the internet.

1.3. Types of Modem

There are following different types of Modems:

1. Cable Modems
Cable modem is a type of modem that helps in establishing communication between
computer and ISP over landline connection. These modems allow the access to high-
speed data with the help of a cable TV (CATV) network. Such modems are external
devices connected to your PC with the help of a standard 10 BASE-T ethernet card
and twisted pair wiring.
2. Telephone Modems
These types of modems are network devices that allow data communication between
two computers over voice-grade telephone lines. Telephone modems convert bits to
analog signals for transmission through physical channels. These also convert the
analog signals in the local loops into bits that are understandable by a computer.

3. Dial modems
These modems convert the data between analog form (used on the telephone lines)
and digital form (used on the computers). These networking devices plug into the
computer at one end and a telephone line at another end. These modems can transmit
the data at a maximum rate of 56000 bits/[Link] you have connected to a
network with the help of dial up modem, it relays distinctive handshaking sounds
between the remote modem and your device. This sound helps in verifying if the
connection is working.
4. Satellite Modems
This type of modem provides an internet connection with the help of satellite dishes.
It transfers input bits into output radio signals and then executes the vice versa. This
modem is more reliable for providing an internet network in comparison with other
modems.

5. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

DSL are types of modems used for transmission of the digital data over telephone
lines. These modems offer high-speed internet connection through telephone lines.
Two types of DSL modem include asymmetric and symmetric DSL that use existing
telephone wiring within your home wiring. Due to the use of existing wiring, these
modems are cost-effective.
 1.4. Applications of Modems
Initially, these devices were used for either sending faces or for connecting the user
with the internet. These days, modems have more than just two applications. These
include the following:

1. Data transfer: Dial modems provide secure connections for smoothly transferring
the data. These come along with the redial functionality in case a call is dropped.
2. Reliable backup: Modems act as a backup in the absence of stable broadband or
server connection. With modems, data can be retrieved and servers can be configured
even if the status of the broadband connection is not known.
3. Remote management: These networking devices can be installed at remote or
sensitive locations. Along with that, modems help in remotely controlling certain
applications. This helps in a quick resolution to issues that will otherwise require
physical assessment.

 Speed of Modem
Classification
We often describe modems by how much data they can send in a set time. We
measure this in bits per second (bit/s or "bps"). Sometimes, but not often, we use
bytes per second (B/s). For newer, faster broadband modems, we use megabits per
second (Mbit/s).

Historical Measurement
In the past, people also described modems by their symbol rate, measured in baud.
Baud means symbols per second, or how many times a modem sends a new signal
each second.

For example:
 The ITU-T V.21 standard used two different frequencies to represent two symbols
(or one bit per symbol). It sent 300 bits per second using 300 baud.

 The first ITU-T V.22 standard could use four different symbols (two bits per
symbol). It sent 1,200 bits by using 600 symbols per second (600 baud).

Variable Rates
Many modems can change their speed. This helps them work on less-than-perfect
connections, like poor quality or very long telephone lines. Often, modems can figure
out the best speed on their own. They might do this when first connecting or while
they're working.

1.5. Advantages of Modem

The following are the advantages of a modem:

 A modem can convert a digital signal into an analog signal.

 LAN can be connected to the internet via Modem.

 The modem can simultaneously perform modulation as well as demodulation

processes.

 It can work with various types of networks including cable, fiber and phone lines.

 Wired connections through modems offer more stable connections as compared to

wireless.

1.6. Disadvantages of Modem

A Modem has the following disadvantages:

 A modem will be slowed down when it is connected to the hub.

 It is not possible to track the traffic between the internet and the LAN through
Modem.

 Only a limited number of devices can be connected to the internet using a Modem.

 Modems are susceptible to security-related attacks.

 Maintenance of traffic is not possible through Modems.

1.7. Future Trends and Advancements in Modems

Based on general trends in technology and networking, we can anticipate that:

 Gigabit-Speed Modems: As internet speeds continue to increase, we can expect to

see more widespread use of gigabit-speed modems. These modems will be able to
handle higher data rates, providing faster and more reliable internet connections.
 Integration with Next-Generation Networks: With the advent of 5G and beyond,
modems will likely need to be able to integrate with these next-generation
networks. This could involve supporting new frequency bands, handling higher data
rates, and possibly integrating with other types of networks (such as satellite or
fiber optic networks).
 5G and Beyond: As 5G networks become more widespread, modems will need to
be able to support these networks. This could involve supporting higher data rates,
lower latency, and more reliable connections. In the future, we may even see the
development of 6G or 7G networks, which would require further advancements in
modem technology.

2. What is a router?

A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information between two or

more packet-switched computer networks. These networks can be local area networks
(LANs), wide area networks (WANs) or a combination of the two. A router inspects a
given data packet's destination internet protocol (IP) address, calculates the best way
to reach its destination and then forwards it accordingly.

A router is a common type of gateway. It's positioned where two or more networks
meet at each point of presence on the internet. Hundreds of routers might forward a
single IP packet as it moves from one network to the next on the way to its final
destination. Routers exist on Layer 3, the network layer, of the Open Systems
Interconnection model.

Traditional routers are standalone devices that use proprietary software. A virtual
router is a software instance that performs the same functions as a physical router.
Virtual routers typically run on commodity servers, either alone or packaged with
other virtual network functions, such as firewall packet filtering, load balancing and
WAN optimization capabilities.

Other network devices, such as wireless access points and network switches, might
include built-in router functionality.

2.1. Why use a router?

A router sends data packets to their correct destinations and enables multiple devices
to share the same internet connection. It acts as a central hub, receiving internet traffic
and distributing it to the correct devices on the local network. It lets those devices
share the same public IP address and connection.

Routers also let connected devices communicate without needing internet access,
facilitating the creation of local network.
Fig 1.2 router

2.2. How a router works

When a network device such as a laptop or a phone sends data to another device, that
data is broken down into packets. Each packet's header contains important
information, such as the source and destination IP address. A router examines a packet
header's destination IP address and compares it with a routing table to determine the
packet's best next hop.

Routing tables list directions for forwarding data to network destinations, sometimes
in the context of other variables, such as cost. They amount to an algorithmic set of
rules that calculate the best way to transmit traffic toward any given IP address.

A routing table often specifies a default route, which the router uses whenever it fails
to find a better forwarding option for a given packet. For example, a typical home
office router directs all outbound traffic along a single default route to its internet
service provider (ISP).
Routing tables are either static or dynamic. Static routers are manually configured,
while dynamic routers automatically update their routing tables based on network
activity and exchange information with other devices using routing protocols.

Many routers also perform Network Address Translation (NAT), which shields the
private IP addresses of a LAN by readdressing all outgoing traffic with a single shared
public IP address. NAT helps to conserve globally valid IP addresses and improve
network security.

2.3. Types of routers

Some of the different types of network routers include the following:

 Wired routers. These routers physically connect devices to the internet using
Ethernet cables. Wired connections provide higher internet speeds and are
generally more reliable and secure than wireless ones. They're ideal for
environments, such as data centers, where a stable and high-speed connection is
essential.
 Wireless routers. A wireless router works in the same way as the router in a hard-
wired home or business LAN but enables greater mobility for notebook or portable
computers. Wireless routers use the 802.11g specification, a standard that offers
transmission over short distances.

 Core routers. ISPs use core routers, the fastest and most powerful types of
routers. Core routers provide maximum bandwidth for connecting additional
routers or switches. They sit at the center of the internet and forward information
along the main fiber optic backbone. Enterprise routers connect large
organizations' networks to core routers.

 Edge routers. An edge router, also known as an access router, is a lower-capacity

device that resides at the boundary of a LAN and connects it to the public internet,
a private WAN or an external LAN. Subscriber edge routers are edge routers used
in home and small office routers.

 Branch routers. These routers link an organization's remote office locations to its
WAN, connecting to the primary campus network's edge routers. They often
provide additional features, such as time-division multiplexing, wireless LAN
management capabilities and WAN application acceleration.

 Virtual routers. A virtual router is a software-based emulation of a physical

router. It divides one physical router into multiple isolated units, enabling the
device to operate as several independent routers. Each virtual router has its own
routing tables, interfaces and configurations. Virtual routers are typically used to
create separate routing instances for different virtual private networks on the same
device or in multi-tenancy environments, where customer traffic must be isolated
within a shared infrastructure.

 Logical routers. A logical router is a configured partition of a traditional network

hardware, or physical router. It's viewed as an enhanced virtual router with
 dedicated hardware resources, such as a specific central processing unit, memory
and network interfaces assigned to each logical router instance. Logical routers
replicate the hardware's functionality, creating multiple routing domains within a
single router. They perform a subset of the tasks that physical routers can
complete, and each logical router can contain multiple routing instances and
routing tables.

2.4. Routing protocol categories

Routing protocols determine how a router identifies other routers on the network,
keeps track of all possible destinations and makes dynamic decisions about where to
send each network message. Routing protocols are typically categorized into the
following three types:

Distance vector and link-state protocols

Distance vector protocols use the distance to determine the best route to a destination,
which is usually measured in hops. Each router shares its routing table with its
immediate neighbors, aiding in the calculation of the optimal path. Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) is an example of a distance vector protocol.

Link-state protocols determine the best routing path to a destination while maintaining
a complete view of the network topology. Each router shares information about its
directly connected neighbors to create a map of the network. This enables routers to
calculate the shortest path to each destination based on various metrics, such as cost or
speed. Open shortest path first (OSPF) is an example of a link-state routing protocol.
Interior and exterior gateway protocols

Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) exchange routing information within a

single autonomous system. Within an AS, routers use these protocols to identify the
optimal path for data transmission. IGPs are typically employed for smaller-scale
routing within an organization, often confined to a single building or a cluster of
connected buildings. Common examples of IGP protocols include RIP, OSPF and
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).

Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) exchange routing information between different

ASes. They are essential for routing across the broader internet, as they enable
different networks to communicate and determine the best paths for traffic moving
from one AS to another. The most commonly used EGP is the Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP).

Hybrid protocols

Hybrid protocols integrate characteristics of both distance vector and link-state

protocols to enhance efficiency and scalability. EIGRP is a notable example of a
hybrid protocol. While it primarily follows distance vector principles, it also keeps a
topology map similar to that of link-state protocols.

2.5. Router security challenges

While routers play a crucial role in network connectivity, they also face numerous
security challenges that threaten network integrity and safety. Here are some of the
primary challenges:

 Firmware vulnerabilities. If a router's firmware or operating system is outdated,

it could have known security vulnerabilities that hackers can exploit.
Manufacturers frequently release updates to address these flaws, but users don't
 always install them in a timely manner. Additionally, attackers replace legitimate
firmware with malicious versions that let them take control of the router, intercept
traffic or steal sensitive data.

 Weak or default credentials. Many routers come with default usernames and
passwords that are easily found online. If these credentials aren't changed, anyone
could gain access to the router's settings. Even when users do change their
passwords, they might still opt for weak passwords that can be easily guessed or
cracked through brute-force attacks. The latest NIST password
guidelines recommend permitting passwords up to 64 characters and advise a
minimum of 8 characters for basic security.

 Denial-of-service attacks. DDoS attack is a common method of flooding a router

with excessive traffic. This surge in data can exceed the router's processing
capabilities, resulting in system crashes or severe latency. The router becomes
unresponsive, leading to significant disruptions in network connectivity and
preventing users from accessing essential online services.

 Router misconfigurations. Routers have ports that facilitate various types of

network traffic. If these ports are left open when they aren't needed, attackers can
use them as a potential entry point. Convenience features for routers can also
introduce security risks. For example, Wi-Fi Protected Setup, designed to simplify
Wi-Fi router connections by using a button or PIN, can be vulnerability if not
properly configured.

 Physical access. If someone gains physical access to a router, they could

potentially reset it, change its settings or even install malicious software.
3. What is Network Hub?
Network Hub is a simple device that connects many devices in a network. It works at
the physical layer and broadcasts information from one device to all others. It uses
different ports to connect nodes; ensuring data reaches all devices in the network.

Fig 1.3 Hubs

A hub is a “dumb” device, which is to say that it has no routing tables and hence has
no decision-making skills. Instead, it just receives incoming data and broadcasts it to
every device on the network.

What is an example of a network hub?

An example of a network hub is a basic Ethernet hub. It connects multiple devices in a
network but lacks intelligence. When it receives data, it broadcasts it to all connected
devices, regardless of the desired recipient, making it less efficient than switches.

3.1. How Does a Network Hub Function?

A Network Hub operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model, connecting multiple
computers in a network. It's a simple device that broadcasts data to all connected
devices.
All the devices connected to the hub share the same bandwidth, and the data is
transmitted from the sending port to the receiving port without any restrictions.
The node that receives the data only accepts it if the address matches its MAC
address.
Take a look at the following scenario to understand how it works.
 Let's assume we have three nodes N1, N2, and N3.

 If N1 wants to send some data, if will forward the data to N2 and N3.

 If, at the same time, N2 also sends the data, then the receiving data from N1 and
its data will collide, resulting in a loss of data.

 This jams the signal, and this situation is communicated to all the connected
devices, which now have to wait for a definite amount of time.

3.2. Types of Network Hub

There are three types of Network Hubs that are given below:
Passive Hub
These are simply connection points for wires that make up the network. They have no
functionality beyond receiving data from nodes and broadcasting them to the network.
They are relatively more minor, inexpensive, and have limited abilities.
Active Hub
These Network Hubs have the capability of amplifying and regenerating signals. This
allows them to act as network extenders, increasing the network range and one-upping
Passive Hub. They are generally more well-suited for larger networks, having a more
significant number of ports.
Intelligent Hub
Intelligent hubs possess a unique type of software that enables them to perform
network management functions. This software enables them to detect and isolate
network problems, giving them monitoring and management capabilities. It offers
better performance for a LAN. Moreover, it can also resolve issues with a device on
the network.

3.3. Features of Network Hub

The features of a network hub are:
 It connects many devices in a network.

 A network hub operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model.

 It broadcasts incoming data to all connected devices.

 A network hub lacks intelligence and doesn't differentiate between recipients.

 It is budget-friendly and easy to set up.

 It is suitable for small networks with less data traffic.

 Network hubs can slow down networks because they send data to all devices
(also known as data flooding), causing congestion.

3.4. Application of Network Hub

The applications of a network hub are:
 Network hubs are used to link PCs, printers, and other devices in a network.
  Network hubs are suitable for connecting devices in small networks as in homes
and offices where simplicity and cost-effectiveness are essential.

 Network hubs are used to extend the network's reach beyond the limitations of a
single device.

 Network hubs are used to test network connections and check data transmission
between devices.

 Network hubs are also useful for setting up temporary networks in events,
conferences, or meetings.

3.5. Advantages of Network Hub

While more advanced networking devices have generally replaced Network Hub, it
still has a few advantages in specific network scenarios
 Cost Effective: Relatively inexpensive, making them a viable solution for smaller
networks.

 Ease of Use: These devices are easy to use and setup, having a minimal
configuration

 Usage with any Networking device: Hubs can be used with virtually any
network device with a valid network port (generally Ethernet). This is very useful
as one can test their devices on a network using a Network Hub.

3.6. Disadvantages of Network Hub

Hubs, once commonly used, have now been replaced by newer and more advanced
networking devices. There are several disadvantages to using hubs over these modern
networking devices. Some of them are listed as follows.
  Limited functionality: Hubs have limited functionality and are primarily used as
a simple device connection point. They cannot perform traffic filtering or
prioritization or manage network traffic like switches and routers can.

 Network congestion: Hubs can cause congestion by broadcasting all traffic to

every network device, leading to slower performance and reduced efficiency,
especially in more extensive networks.

 Security risks: Hubs do not provide any security features like firewalls or
encryption, leaving the network vulnerable to security breaches and attacks.

 Outdated technology: Hubs have been replaced by more advanced networking

devices, such as switches and routers, that offer better performance and
functionality.

 Limited scalability: Hubs have a limited number of ports, making it difficult to

expand a network beyond a certain size. This limits the scalability of the network
and makes it more challenging to add new devices to the network as needed.

4. What is Bridge in Computer Network?

A bridge is a network device that connects two or more LANs (local area networks)
to form a larger LAN. Network bridging refers to the process of aggregating
networks. A bridge connects the various components, making them appear to be part
of a single network.
In the OSI model, a bridge operates at layer 2, or the data link layer. This is primarily
to inspect incoming traffic and determine whether it should be filtered or forwarded.
 Fig 1.4 Bridges

4.1. Types of Bridges in Computer Networks

There are generally two types of Bridges in Computer networks:
 Transparent Bridge

 Source-Route Bridge

 Translational bridge
Transparent Bridge
It's an invisible computer network bridge, as the name implies. This bridge's primary
function is to block or forward data based on the MAC address. The other devices in
the network are entirely unaware that bridges exist. These are the most common
bridges, and they work transparently for all networks connected to hosts.
This bridge keeps MAC addresses in a table similar to a routing table. When a packet
is routed to its destination, this calculates the information. As a result, it can also
combine several bridges to monitor incoming traffic better. Typically, these bridges
are used in Ethernet networks.
Source-Route Bridge
It decides the route between two hosts. The entire frame route is contained within a
single frame in this bridge. As a result, the bridge will make precise decisions about
how the structure will be forwarded over the network.
The data link layer is connected to two similar network segments using this method.
It can be done in a distributed manner wherever the bridging algorithm combines end
stations.
Translational bridge
Translational bridges are a type of Network Bridge that can translate between various
network protocols. This enables devices on different networks to communicate with
one another, even if they are using different protocols.
It can connect different types of networks and helps in improving network security
and performance. The only downside to them is that they are difficult to configure and
manage.

4.2. How does a bridge work?

A bridge takes all packets and amplifies them for transmission to the opposite side.
Bridges are clever devices that enable just specific packets to travel through them. A
bridge only transmits packets addressed from one network node to another network
node.
A bridge functions in the following ways:
 All packets or frames from both LAN (segment) A and B are received by a bridge

 A bridge creates a table of addresses from which it may determine which LAN
(or segment) is sending packets to which LAN

 All packets from LAN A sent to a computer on LAN A are discarded by the
bridge, whereas packets from LAN A sent to a computer on LAN B are
retransmitted to LAN B

 The packets from LAN B are treated in the same way.

4.3. Functions of Bridges

  In an OSI model, bridges connect and enable communication between two
distinct networks at the data link layer

 Bridges can also expand the physical size of a network

 Bridges are also used to connect a LAN segment to another LAN segment in
another location via a synchronous modem connection

 Bridges are used to split large, busy networks into smaller, interconnected
networks to improve performance

 Bridges broadcast data to every node, like hubs and repeaters. however, continues
to update the MAC (media access control) address table to identify new segments

 To create a larger virtual LAN (VLAN), bridges can also link smaller VLANs

 To connect wireless networks or networks with a wireless segment, a wireless

bridge is employed.

4.4. Uses of Bridge in Computer Network

Following are the uses of Bridge:
 Bridges are used to divide large networks into smaller groups, networks or
segments which helps to reduce traffic in each segment

 Bridges are used to extend the range of the network by connecting two or more
physically separated segments
  Bridges provide security as it separates different parts of networks from each
other

 Bridges provide network redundancy by connecting two or more paths between

different network segments

 Bridges are used to forward frames without changing the source or destination
addresses

 Wireless bridges connect various parts of a wireless network, enabling

communication without the need for cables and getting around barriers to point-
to-point or point-to-multipoint connections.

4.5. Advantages of Bridge in Computer Network

Following are the advantages of Bridge:
 It serves as a network extender by acting as a repeater

 Subdividing network traffic into network communications can reduce network

traffic on a segment

 Collisions can be reduced to a minimum

 Some types of bridges use architectures and different types of media to connect
networks

 Because fewer network nodes share a collision domain, bridges increase the
available bandwidth to individual nodes
  It reduces BW waste (bandwidth)

 The network's length can be extended

 It connects various network transmission segments

 Bridges have simple installation. There is no requirement of any extra hardware

or software except the bridge itself.

4.6. Disadvantages of Bridge in Computer Network

Following are the disadvantages of Bridge:
 It cannot assist in the construction of the network between the various network
architectures

 Because it is more concerned with MAC addresses, it cannot read specific IP

addresses.

 When compared to repeaters, these are more expensive.

 It cannot stop the flow of messages because it transmits all types of broadcast
messages.

 It can't handle the more variable and complex data loads from the WAN.
5. What Is a Network Switch?

A network switch is a hardware component responsible for relaying data from

networks to the destination endpoint through packet switching, MAC address
identification, and a multiport bridge system.

Fig 1.5 Switches

5.1. Features of Network Switches

 It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.
 It performs error checking before forwarding data.
 It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
 It operates in full duplex mode.
 It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.
 It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all)
transmission modes.
 Packet-switching techniques are used to transfer data packets from source to
destination.
 Switches have a more significant number of ports.

5.2. Types of Switches

Switches are mainly classified into the following types that are mentioned below.
 Virtual Switches: Virtual Switches are the switches that are inside Virtual
Machine hosting environments.
 Routing Switches: These are the switches that are used to connect [Link]
also have the work of performing functions in the Network Layer of the OSI
Model.
 Unmanaged Switches: Unmanaged Switches are the devices that are used to
enable Ethernet devices that help in automatic data passing. These are generally
used for home networks and small businesses. In case of the requirement of more
switches, we just add more switches by plug and play method.
 Managed Switches: Managed Switches are switches having more complex
networks. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) can be used for
configuring managed switches. These types of switches are mostly used in large
networks having complex architecture. They provide better security levels and
precision control but they are more costly than unmanaged switches.
 LAN Switches: LAN (Local Area Network) Switches are also called Ethernet
switches or data switches. LAN switches always try to avoid overlapping of data
packets in the network just by allocating bandwidth in such a manner.
 PoE Switches: Power over Ethernet (PoE) are the switches used in Gigabit
Ethernets. PoE helps in combining data and power transmission over the same
cable so that it helps in receiving data and electricity over the same line.
 Smart Switches: Smart Switches are switches having some extra controls on
data transmissions but also have extra limitations over managed Switches. They
are also called partially managed switches.
 Stackable Switches: Stackable switches are connected through a backplane to
combine two logical switches into a single switch.
 Modular Switches: These types of switches help in accommodating two or more
cards. Modular switches help in providing better flexibility.
 5.3. How Does a Network Switch Works?
When the source wants to send the data packet to the destination, the packet first
enters the switch and the switch reads its header and finds the MAC address of the
destination to identify the device then it sends the packet out through the appropriate
ports that lead to the destination devices.
Switch establishes a temporary connection between the source and destination for
communication and terminates the connection once the conversation is done. Also, it
offers full bandwidth to network traffic going to and from a device simultaneously to
reduce collision.

How Does a Network Switch Works?

5.4. Advantages of Switches

 Prevents traffic overloading in a network by segmenting the network into smaller
subnets.
 Increases the bandwidth of the network.
 Less frame collision as the switch creates the collision domain for each
connection.

5.5. Disadvantages of Switches

 It can not stop traffic destined for a different LAN segment from traveling to all
other LAN segments.
 Switches are more expensive.

6. What Is a Network Interface Card?

A network interface card, also known as NIC or network interface controller, is

typically a circuit board installed on the computer to connect to the network. It works
as an indispensable component for the network connection of computers. Currently,
NIC cards designed as a built-in style are commonly found in most computers and
some network servers. Besides, NIC cards like server NICs can also be inserted into
expansion slots of devices.

Fig 1.6 Interface Card

6.1. What Is the Function of Network Interface Card?

The network interface card function is to facilitate communication between a
computer/server and a local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), or the
internet. It serves as an interface that allows the computer/server to connect to a
network's physical medium such as copper wire, fiber optic, or wireless transmission.
Here are the primary functions of a NIC:

Data Conversion:
The NIC converts digital data from the computing device into signals appropriate for
transmission over the network medium. Conversely, it also translates incoming signals
back into digital data that the device can process. This conversion aligns with the
specific requirements of the networking standard in use, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi.

Data Transfer:
The NIC is responsible for the actual transmission and reception of data packets. It
sends data packets out onto the network and receives incoming packets from other
network sources. This involves encapsulating data within the proper frame structure
for network communication.

Addressing:
Each NIC has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address assigned to it, which is
necessary for network communications. This hardware address allows the NIC to be
precisely identified on a local area network and enables the accurate delivery of
packets to and from the device.

Traffic Control:
To maintain optimal network performance, the NIC manages data flow by using
algorithms and protocols that prevent data collisions and minimize congestion on the
network. This might include implementing carrier sense and collision detection
techniques in Wi-Fi or Ethernet networks.

Error Detection and Correction:

As part of its responsibility to ensure the integrity of data, the NIC checks each
packet for errors using checksums or other error-detection codes. If an error is
detected, the NIC may request that the data be resent or attempt to correct the error
through forward error correction, depending on the protocols in place.

Buffering:
Due to the potential differences in speed between the network's data transfer rate and
the device's processing speed, the NIC temporarily stores incoming or outgoing data
packets in a buffer. This helps to align the data flow rate with the processing
capabilities of the device, preventing loss of data and improving overall transmission
efficiency.

6.2. Components of Network Interface Card

The network card has the following 6 components:

1. Controller: The central component of the NIC, responsible for processing data
transmission.

2. Boot ROM Slot: Allows diskless workstations to boot via the network, enhancing
security and reducing costs.

3. Interface Port: Connects to the network using an Ethernet cable or transceiver to

transfer data signals.

4. Bus Interface: Plugs into an expansion slot to link the NIC with the computer's
motherboard.

5. LED Indicators: Show the network card's connection and activity status, providing
users with an understanding of its operation.

6. Bracket: Comes in standard and compact sizes for securing the NIC within the
expansion slot.
Fig 1.7 Interface Card

6.3. Characteristics of NIC

 Physical network address all network connectors have a universally interesting
physical address burned onto the card by the card producer. The physical address
extraordinarily recognizes each individual card that interfaces to the network
cable or media. For this reason, the physical address is additionally called the
Media Access Control (MAC) address. MAC addresses are six bytes long. An
ordinary MAC address might appear as 00-00-86-47-F6-65, where the primary
three bytes are the merchant ID and the other three are special information.
 Network connection port Network connector cards will have one or more ports
that are arranged to put through particularly to a given sort of arranging cable. A
few more seasoned cards might have double ports so that they can interface to
more than one network cable sort. Be beyond any doubt to choose a card with a
port that matches the network media to utilize in your environment.
 Status indicator lights Network connectors ordinarily have one or more Light
Emanating Diode (Led) status lights that can give data on the state of the network
association. Most connectors have an interface lights that demonstrates in the
 event that there’s a flag from the organize. If the interface isn’t list, there’s, by
and large, an issue with the cable or the physical connection. Most connectors
have a movement light that flashes when parcels are calmed or sent. On the off
chance that the light flickers constantly, the organization can be abused or there
could be a framework creating arrange clamor.

6.4. Types of Network Interface Cards

There are two types of NICs:
Wired NICs (Ethernet NIC)
It was created by Robert Metcalfe in 1980. This types of NICs uses cables to connect
to a networks. It is more secure as compare to wireless. It supports high-speed data
up to 1 Gbps. It establishes more stable connections as compared to wireless
networks. This type of NICs used in LAN, MAN and WAN networks, as well as for
gaming and video conferencing.
Examples: TP-Lick TG-3468 Gigabit PCI Express Network Adapter, Integrated
Ethernet NICs.
Wireless NICs
This type of NICs uses radio signals to connect to a network. They are commonly
used for Wi-Fi connections. It is more portable, often built into devices like laptops
and phones. Wireless capability can also be added to computers without built-in Wi-
Fi.
Examples : Intel 3160 Dual-Band wireless Adapter, Internal Wi-Fi cards, USB Wi-
Fi adapters, Wi-Fi 6 adapters.

Wired NICs Wireless NICs

Connection uses cables uses radio signals

Stability More stable less stable

Speed High speed Low speed

Example TP-Lick TG-3468 Gigabit Intel 3160 Dual-Band

PCI Express Network Wireless Adapter.
Adapter.

6.5. Advantages of NIC

 The communication speed utilizing the Web is high ordinarily in Gigabytes.
 Highly dependable connection.
 Many peripheral gadgets can be associated with utilizing numerous ports of NIC
cards.
 Bulk information can be shared among numerous clients.

6.6. Disadvantages of NIC

 Badly arranged in case of wired cable NIC, because it isn’t versatile like a
remote router.
 The arrangement ought to be appropriate for superior communication.
 Data is unsecured.

7. What is Network Cabling?

Network cabling is the process of connecting devices to an Internet source. For
network cabling to be effective, one can pay attention to the length of the cable, the
shielding, the cable’s data rate, and where it will be installed.
The data rate (or speed) allows network cables to transfer millions of data per second.
This speed depends on the purpose of a cable (if it is installed in a commercial
building or at home). Network cables can come in extensive lengths and thick
shielding that protect the cable conductors from EMI or external factors. In
commercial buildings, installed network cables are fire-rated and plenum-rated.

F
ig 1.8 Network Cables

7.1. The Different 4 Types of Network Cables

Network cables can be divided into four types: coaxial, shielded twisted pair (STP),
unshielded twisted pair (UTP), or fiber optic.

1. Coaxial Cables

Coaxial cables contain a centre conductor and a metal shield insulated by a plastic
layer placed in between. The metal shield in coaxial cables blocks any elements or
interferences from the outside.
In a coaxial cable, the outer layer, known as sheath, protects the cable from physical
damage. Meanwhile, the metal shield protects the cable from any external
interference, and the insulation between the metal shield and the conductor protects
the conductor – the core of the coaxial cable.

Coaxial cable conductors carry electromagnetic signals and can come either in single-
core or multi-core models. While a single-core coaxial cable has only one central
metal, multi-core cables have many metal wires.

Coaxial cables were used in the earlier days of computer networks.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cables

These ethernet cables, also known as STP cables, are widely used for business
installations. They were developed for computer networks and are an excellent choice
for areas with high interference. Shielded twisted pair cables are also used to expand
any distance between cables.

STP cables consist of colored wires twisted around one another, forming pairs.
Usually, shielded twisted pair cables are composed of four colorful pairs of wires
wrapped with metal shields and a singular plastic sheath.

3. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables

Unshielded twisted pair cables, or UTP cables, are widely used in industrial
computers and telecommunication companies. The conductors present in UTP cables
form a circuit that stops any EMI. Similarly to STP cables, unshielded twisted pairs
are colourful wires wrapped around each other and then wrapped altogether in a
plastic sheath.
When compared to STP cables, UTP cables are more affordable.

4. Fibre Optic Cables

Fibre optic cables are networking cables that contain either a glass or a plastic core,
shielded by a cladding, a buffer and a jacket. These layers protect fibre optic cables
from potential damage and from external interference. This networking cable is the
perfect choice for carrying data around long distances and the standard cable for
connecting networks in different locations.

Fibre optic cables can be single-mode fibre or multi-mode fibre. SMF cables support
longer distances, while MMF cables carry more data.

8. What is a firewall?
A firewall is a network security device either hardware or software-based which
monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security
rules it accepts, rejects, or drops that specific traffic. It acts like a security guard that
helps keep your digital world safe from unwanted visitors and potential threats.
 Accept: allow the traffic
 Reject: block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error”
 Drop: block the traffic with no reply
A firewall is a type of network security device that filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic with security policies that have previously been set up inside an
organization. A firewall is essentially the wall that separates a private internal
network from the open Internet at its very basic level.
Fig 1.8 Firewall

8.1. Working of Firewall

 Firewall match the network traffic against the rule set defined in its table. Once
the rule is matched, associate action is applied to the network traffic. For
example, Rules are defined as any employee from Human Resources department
cannot access the data from code server and at the same time another rule is
defined like system administrator can access the data from both Human Resource
and technical department.
 Rules can be defined on the firewall based on the necessity and security policies
of the organization.
 From the perspective of a server, network traffic can be either outgoing or
incoming. Firewall maintains a distinct set of rules for both the cases. Mostly the
outgoing traffic, originated from the server itself, allowed to pass. Still, setting a
rule on outgoing traffic is always better in order to achieve more security and
prevent unwanted communication. Incoming traffic is treated differently.
 Most traffic which reaches on the firewall is one of these three major Transport
Layer protocols- TCP, UDP or ICMP. All these types have a source address and
destination address. Also, TCP and UDP have port numbers. ICMP uses type
code instead of port number which identifies purpose of that packet.
Default policy: It is very difficult to explicitly cover every possible rule on the
firewall. For this reason, the firewall must always have a default policy. Default
policy only consists of action (accept, reject or drop). Suppose no rule is defined
about SSH connection to the server on the firewall. So, it will follow the default
policy. If default policy on the firewall is set to accept, then any computer outside of
your office can establish an SSH connection to the server. Therefore, setting default
policy as drop (or reject) is always a good practice.

8.2. Types of Firewall

Firewalls can be categorized based on their generation.
1. Packet Filtering Firewall
Packet filtering firewall is used to control network access by monitoring outgoing
and incoming packets and allowing them to pass or stop based on source and
destination IP address, protocols, and ports. It analyses traffic at the transport
protocol layer (but mainly uses first 3 layers). Packet firewalls treat each packet in
isolation. They have no ability to tell whether a packet is part of an existing stream
of traffic. Only It can allow or deny the packets based on unique packet headers.
Packet filtering firewall maintains a filtering table that decides whether the packet
will be forwarded or discarded. From the given filtering table, the packets will be
filtered according to the following rules:
 Incoming packets from network [Link] are blocked.
 Incoming packets destined for the internal TELNET server (port 23) are blocked.
 Incoming packets destined for host [Link] are blocked.
 All well-known services to the network [Link] are allowed.
2. Stateful Inspection Firewall
Stateful firewalls (performs Stateful Packet Inspection) are able to determine the
connection state of packet, unlike Packet filtering firewall, which makes it more
efficient. It keeps track of the state of networks connection travelling across it, such
as TCP streams. So the filtering decisions would not only be based on defined rules,
but also on packet’s history in the state table.
3. Application Layer Firewall
Application layer firewall can inspect and filter the packets on any OSI layer, up to
the application layer. It has the ability to block specific content, also recognize when
certain application and protocols (like HTTP, FTP) are being misused. In other
words, Application layer firewalls are hosts that run proxy servers. A proxy firewall
prevents the direct connection between either sides of the firewall, each packet has
to pass through the proxy.
4. Next Generation Firewalls (NGFW)
NGFW consists of Deep Packet Inspection, Application
Inspection, SSL/SSH inspection and many functionalities to protect the network
from these modern threats.
5. Circuit Level Gateway Firewall
This works as the Sessions layer of the OSI Model’s . This allows for the
simultaneous setup of two Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections. It can
effortlessly allow data packets to flow without using quite a lot of computing power.
These firewalls are ineffective because they do not inspect data packets; if malware
is found in a data packet, they will permit it to pass provided that TCP connections
are established properly.
6. Software Firewall
A software firewall is any firewall that is set up locally or on a cloud server. When it
comes to controlling the inflow and outflow of data packets and limiting the number
of networks that can be linked to a single device, they may be the most
advantageous. But the problem with software firewall is they are time-consuming.
7. Hardware Firewall
They also go by the name “firewalls based on physical appliances.” It guarantees
that the malicious data is halted before it reaches the network endpoint that is in
danger.
8. Cloud Firewall
These are software-based, cloud-deployed network devices. This cloud-based
firewall protects a private network from any unwanted access. Unlike traditional
firewalls, a cloud firewall filters data at the cloud level.

8.3. Advantages of Using Firewall

 Protection from Unauthorized Access: Firewalls can be set up to restrict
incoming traffic from particular IP addresses or networks, preventing hackers or
other malicious actors from easily accessing a network or system. Protection
from unwanted access.
 Prevention of Malware and Other Threats: Malware and other threat
prevention: Firewalls can be set up to block traffic linked to known malware or
other security concerns, assisting in the defense against these kinds of attacks.
 Control of Network Access: By limiting access to specified individuals or
groups for particular servers or applications, firewalls can be used to restrict
access to particular network resources or services.
 Monitoring of Network Activity: Firewalls can be set up to record and keep
track of all network activity.
 Regulation Compliance: Many industries are bound by rules that demand the
usage of firewalls or other security measures.
 Network Segmentation: By using firewalls to split up a bigger network into
smaller subnets, the attack surface is reduced and the security level is raised.

8.4. Disadvantages of Using Firewall

 Complexity: Setting up and keeping up a firewall can be time-consuming and
difficult, especially for bigger networks or companies with a wide variety of
users and devices.
 Limited Visibility: Firewalls may not be able to identify or stop security risks
that operate at other levels, such as the application or endpoint level, because
they can only observe and manage traffic at the network level.
 False Sense of Security: Some businesses may place an excessive amount of
reliance on their firewall and disregard other crucial security measures like
endpoint security or intrusion detection systems.
 Limited adaptability: Because firewalls are frequently rule-based, they might
not be able to respond to fresh security threats.
 Performance Impact: Network performance can be significantly impacted by
firewalls, particularly if they are set up to analyze or manage a lot of traffic.
 Limited Scalability: Because firewalls are only able to secure one network,
businesses that have several networks must deploy many firewalls, which can be
expensive.
 Limited VPN support: Some firewalls might not allow complex VPN features
like split tunneling, which could restrict the experience of a remote worker.
 Cost: Purchasing many devices or add-on features for a firewall system can be
expensive, especially for businesses.
Conclusion
Networking devices are essential for establishing reliable and efficient communication
between computers and other digital devices. Each device, from modems and routers
to firewalls and network switches, serves a specific purpose, ensuring smooth data
transmission, security, and connectivity.

With rapid advancements in technology, networking hardware continues to evolve,

offering faster speeds, enhanced security, and better performance. Emerging trends
like 5G modems, AI-powered firewalls, and cloud-based networking solutions are
shaping the future of computer networking. Understanding these fundamental devices
not only helps in optimizing network performance but also enhances cybersecurity
and data management strategies.

As networks continue to expand, businesses and individuals must stay updated with
the latest developments in networking technologies to ensure seamless connectivity,
robust security, and efficient communication in an increasingly digital world.
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Tanenbaum, A. S., & Wetherall, D. J. (2010). Computer Networks. Prentice Hall.

Forouzan, B. A. (2017). Data Communications and Networking. McGraw-Hill

Education.

Stallings, W. (2016). Foundations of Modern Networking: SDN, NFV, QoE, IoT, and
Cloud. Pearson.

Cisco Networking Academy. (2023). Introduction to Networks. Cisco Press.

IEEE Computer Society. (2022). Advancements in Networking Technologies. IEEE

Xplore Digital Library.

Various online resources on networking fundamentals, including Cisco, CompTIA

Network+, and other reputable technology sources.