Here are some formulas and theorems from Chapter 4 of the provided sources, presented in
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Chapter 4: Plane and Space Curves
Curve Representation
A curve can be represented as a collection of points connected by short straight line segments,
provided the points are properly spaced.
Non-parametric form of a two-dimensional curve: y = f(x) .
General second degree equation (represents a conic, a two-dimensional curve): ax² + by² +
2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 .
Represents an ellipse if ab – h² > 0 .
Represents a parabola if ab – h² = 0 .
Represents a hyperbola if ab – h² < 0 .
Represents a circle if coefficients of x² and y² are the same and there is no xy term.
Represents a straight line if a = b = h = 0 .
Parametric Curves
In parametric form, each point on the curve is represented by a function of a single parameter t .
For a two-dimensional curve, the Cartesian coordinates of a point P with t as parameter are
given by: x = x(t) y = y(t)
The position vector of a point P on a 2D parametric curve is given by: P(t) = [x(t) y(t)] .
The slope of a parametric curve is: dy/dx = (dy/dt) / (dx/dt) = y'(t) / x'(t) where y'(t)
and x'(t) represent differentiation with respect to t .
Parametric Representation of a Circle and Generation of Circle
A simple parametric representation of a unit circle is: x = cos θ y = sin θ
Another parametric representation for a point P(t) on a unit circle is: P(t) = [(1 - t²) / (1 +
t²) , 2t / (1 + t²)] for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 (representing a part of the unit circle).
Iteration process for points on an origin-centered circle with radius r : Let δθ be the equal
increment in the angle θ . For a point Pi(xi, yi) , xi = r cos θi and yi = r sin θi . For the
next point Pi+1(xi+1, yi+1) , the coordinates can be obtained using trigonometric relations or
matrix form: xi+1 = xi cos δθ - yi sin δθ yi+1 = xi sin δθ + yi cos δθ
The combined 3x3 transformation matrix [T] to scale an origin-centered circle by a factor s
and then translate its center to (h, k) is obtained by concatenating the scaling matrix [S] and
the translation matrix [Tr] : [S] = [[s, 0, 0], [0, s, 0],] [Tr] = [,, [h, k, 1]] [T] = [S]
[Tr] = [[s, 0, 0], [0, s, 0],] [,, [h, k, 1]] = [[s, 0, 0], [0, s, 0], [h, k, 1]] The
transformed points [X'] are obtained by applying this matrix to the original points [X] : [X'] =
[X] [T] .
Bezier Curves
Bezier curves can be defined using a set of control points.
Properties of Bezier curves:
It always passes through the first and last control points.
Bezier curves have the variation-diminishing property, meaning they never oscillate widely
from their defining control points.
Bernstein basis functions are real.
Any Bezier curve lies within the convex hull of the control points.
A Bezier curve is a polynomial of degree one less than the number of control points.
General parametric equation of a Bezier curve defined by n+1 control points B0, B1, ..., Bn is
given by: P(t) = Σᵢ=₀ⁿ Bi Ji,n(t) , where Ji,n(t) = C(n, i) tⁱ (1 - t)ⁿ⁻ⁱ are the Bernstein
basis functions.
Matrix form for a Bezier curve (example shown for n=4, 5 control points B0-B4): P(t) = [t⁴ t³
t² t 1] [N] [G] Where [N] is the coefficient matrix for the basis functions and [G] is the
column matrix of control points [[B0], [B1], [B2], [B3], [B4]] . For n=4, the matrix [N] is:
[[1, -4, 6, -4, 1], [-4, 12, -12, 4, 0], [6, -12, 6, 0, 0], [-4, 4, 0, 0, 0],] .
B-spline Curves
B-spline curves are generalizations of Bezier curves.
General parametric equation of a B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points B0, B1, ..., Bn
and a parameter t with knot vector is: P(t) = Σᵢ=₀ⁿ Ni,k(t) Bi , where Ni,k(t) are the B-
spline basis functions of degree k-1 .
The parameter range is [0, n - k + 2] for a particular definition, divided into sub-intervals by a
knot vector [x0, x1, ..., xn+k] satisfying xi ≤ xi+1 .
Properties of B-spline curves:
Local Control: Each section of the curve is influenced by only a few control points.
Joining sections: Successive sections of the curve are joined with a high order of
continuity.
The B-spline curve exhibits variation-diminishing property.
Any control point can affect the shape of at most k curve sections.
Miscellaneous Formula (from Exercises)
For a parabolic segment y² = 4ax from ymin to ymax , generating n equispace points, the
increment δθ for the parameter θ = y/(2a) is: δθ = (θmax - θmin) / (n - 1) where θmin =
ymin / (2a) and θmax = ymax / (2a) . The iterative formula for points [xi+1, yi+1] given [xi,
yi] is: [xi+1, yi+1] = [xi + yi δθ + aδθ², yi + 2aδθ] . Substituting δθ = 1 (from example 4
in Appendix A), this simplifies to: [xi+1, yi+1] = [xi + yi + a, yi + 2a] .
This summarizes the key formulas and theorems found in Chapter 4 of the provided text.