1

2
 Department of Education
National Capital Region
Schools Division of Parañaque City
Self-Learning Module
General Biology 2 Quarter 4 Week 1

Learning Competency
The learners compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals:
reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/circulation, regulation
of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and
motor mechanisms (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1).

Objectives
The learners should be able to:
1. discuss the processes involved in plant reproduction;
2. describe the stages of plant development;
3. discuss the processes involved in animal reproduction;
4. describe the stages of animal development;
5. discuss the mechanism of human reproduction; and
6. describe the stages of human development.
Let’s Recall
Identify what is being asked. Write the correct answers on your answer sheet.
asexual development sexual autosomes
cell division reproduction gametes or sex cells fertilization

1. It is the process of generating offspring from a parent organism, which occurs in all forms of life.
2. In this reproduction, no contact with another organism is needed, which results in identical copies
of the reproducing organism.
3. In this reproduction, two organisms contribute genetic material for the offspring.
4. These are cell that fuse during fertilization (conception) in organisms that sexually reproduce.
5. It is a process where the mother cell divides into two or more daughter cells. This process is needed
to create new body and sex cells in an organism.

Let’s Understand
PLANT REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
MAJOR PLANT GROUPS
1. Non-vascular plants → lack lignified conducting tissues which means they
usually obtain water and nutrients from their environment through direct
absorption which include the bryophytes
2. Vascular plants include the pteridophytes and spermatophytes
o Pteridophytes (ferns) → reproduce through spores
o Spermatophytes (gymnosperms and angiosperms) → reproduce through seeds

ALTERNATION OF
GENERATIONS
(METAGENESIS)
o Two distinct life stages are
involved: the sporophyte and
the gametophyte stages.

Figure 1 Alternation of generations

(Metagenesis)
c21_fig04.jpg (970×482) ([Link])

3
ANGIOSPERM/FLOWER-BEARING PLANTS LIFE CYCLE
Most of what we see in angiosperms—the leaves,
stems, and visible floral parts—are in the sporophyte
stage. The gametophyte stage is found in the pollens and
ovules of the flower.
o Flowers are the primary reproductive structures of
angiosperms.
o Pollen grains are produced by the male part of the
flower, the stamen. Particularly, they are formed in the
anther, which is held by its stalk called the filament.
o The ovules are housed by the female part of the flower,
the pistil. The stigma receives the pollen. The style Figure 2 Parts of flower
leads to the ovary of the flower. [Link] (460×302) ([Link])
o The other floral parts, particularly the petals and
sepals, are accessory in nature because they primarily help attract pollinators.
The life cycle of angiosperm usually starts with the seed. It contains the embryo, the first
sporophyte stage, that will develop and produce new generations. After germination, where the seed
imbibes (or absorbs) water for activation, it develops and forms a seedling. After some time, the
seedling will reach the adult sporophyte stage, which will produce blooming flowers. In the case of
the apple plant, the mature sporophyte will be in the form of a tree.

Asexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

Angiosperms can reproduce asexually through apomixis or vegetative propagation.
1. Apomixis → the seeds are produced without meiosis and fertilization
2. Vegetative
propagation →
plant parts produce
buds that develop
into new individuals
→ allows
fragmentation of
plant parts followed
by regeneration,
where the Figure 4 Apomixis in dandelions forms Figure 3 Vegetative propagation includes
development of new seeds. the stolons or runners of strawberries.
individuals depositphotos_100550882-stock-illustration- jnXe0nhStuBIwmEnaDGW_runner.jpg
proceeds [Link] (600×465) (500×393) ([Link])

Sexual reproduction in Angiosperms

Flowers are the reproductive organs in angiosperms
that possess the stamens (male structures) and pistils (female
structures). Collectively, these male and female structures are
called androecium and gynoecium, respectively.
During pollination, pollen grains from the anther of the
stamen must reach the female stigma. Usually, the pollen grains
are being transported by agents or pollinators, which can be the
air, insects, other animals, or even humans. Once the pollen
grains successfully land on the stigma, the fertilization process
will begin.
During fertilization, the pollen grain containing the
sperm nuclei forms the pollen tube or tube nucleus. This
extends down to the neck of the style until it reaches the egg Figure 5 Double Fertilization
nucleus in the ovules (or embryo sac) of the ovary. 38_06DoubleFertilizationA.jpg
(606×480) ([Link])
One important feature of reproduction in angiosperms
and a few gymnosperms is double fertilization. Note that each pollen grain contains two sperm nuclei.

4
During double fertilization, the pollen tube penetrates the ovary to release two sperm cells.
Specifically, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form a diploid (2n) zygote, while the other sperm cell
fertilizes the two polar nuclei to form a triploid (3n) endosperm. This endosperm will become the
food source of the growing and developing embryo.

GYMNOSPERM (GYMNOS=NAKED;
SPERMA=SEED) LIFE CYCLE
Gymnosperms, such as pine trees,
also produce seeds like the angiosperms do.
However, they do not bear flowers that form
fruits and they contain the seeds in structures
called cones after pollination. The seeds in
the cones contain the embryo, which marks
the first sporophyte stage. The seed, after
germination, then develops into a sexually
mature plant.
o The male cones contain the male Figure 6 Female and male cones
gametophytes in the form of pollen Figure_14_03_01.png (690×708) ([Link])
grains.
o The larger female cones contain the female gametophytes in the form of the ovules.
o Pollination takes place between these two cones, which eventually produce the fertilized ovules in
the form of seeds that will be contained in the female cones only.

LIFE CYCLE OF LOWER PLANTS

In lower plants, such as bryophytes and ferns, embryos are not contained in seeds. Rather,
they directly release their haploid spores into their surroundings to develop into a gametophyte.

PLANT DEVELOPMENT
During development, the cells of the plant start to increase in number and a series of cell
differentiation allows plant tissues to become highly specialized according to the function of the organ
where they are located.

EMBRYOGENESIS
During embryogenesis, the fertilized egg or zygote
Seed
turns into a mass of cells called the embryo. On the other
hand, the fertilized polar nuclei, which forms the
endosperm nucleus, further develops into a mature
endosperm. In the later stage of development, the Pericarp
developing embryo within the ovule matures into a seed.
The wall of the ovary forms the pericarp or wall of the
fruit. With this, the fruits that you see in plants are mature
or ripe forms of the angiosperm ovaries. The pericarp can
be further divided into three parts.
1. Endocarp is the inner layer of the fruit that is Figure 7 Drupe fruit diagram
adjacent to the seeds. 330px-Drupe_fruit_diagram-[Link]
(330×246) ([Link])
2. Mesocarp is the middle layer of the fruit.
3. Exocarp is the outer layer of the fruit that is represented as the peels of the fruits.

ORGANOGENESIS
During organogenesis, the developing embryo in the seed starts to grow fully and form the
embryonic organs. Organogenesis in plants starts when the seeds are germinated. Germination refers
to the process where a seed grows and forms a young individual. At this stage, the seed sprouts into a
seedling.
For the next phase of organogenesis, the cells of the seeds undergo a series of migration

5
 and elongation, leading to the further development
of the root and the cotyledons. The cotyledons are
the initial embryonic leaves in the new individual
plant before the future mature leaves emerge.
Another embryonic structure that starts to emerge
is the hypocotyl. The hypocotyl is the embryonic
stem of the plant located beneath the stalks of the
cotyledons and directly above the young roots.
Lastly, the epicotyl is also starting to form and
(the primary root)
expand to allow the vertical growth of the
plant. The epicotyl is the embryonic region Figure 8 Bean seed germination
main-qimg-89384a9aacd7533712700bb47177ac49 (350×232) ([Link])
above the cotyledon.

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In animals, asexual reproduction
ensures that future generations of
individuals carry the same genetic
information as to their parents. Thus,
offspring are usually called clones.
1. Fission or binary fission → new
a b
individuals are formed through the
splitting of the parent into
approximately equal halves
o Example: Sea anemone
2. Fragmentation → a parent needs to
break its body parts into fragments
to allow regeneration and regrowth
of lost parts c d
o Example: Sea stars
3. Budding → a bud or outgrowth Figure 9 Sea anemone (a), Hydra (b), Sea star (c), and
forms in the body of the parent and Parthenogenesis in female bees (d)
[Link] (483×334) ([Link]);
develops into a new individual scaletowidth (400×191) ([Link]);
o Example: Hydra [Link] (200×260)
4. Parthenogenesis → an offspring is ([Link]); and
produced without fertilization Bees-Reproduction--Parthenogenesis-Abejas-Bee-Eggs-Fertilise-Insect-
o Example: Female bees produce [Link] (630×315) ([Link])
haploid drones or males

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In animals, sexual reproduction requires male and female parents to perform gametogenesis,
which involves a meiotic division. Afterward, fertilization follows where the combination of genes
from both parents enhances the genetic variation in populations, an aspect that is not present in
asexual reproduction.
Fertilization during sexual reproduction in animals can happen internally or externally.
1. External fertilization → the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the female reproductive tract
2. Internal fertilization → the union of egg and sperm occurs in the female reproductive tract
For animals in which fertilization occurs internally, embryos are produced and nourished in
three different ways:
o In oviparity, the eggs are fertilized internally, but they would complete their development
outside the mother’s body. The eggs receive their nourishment through their yolk. Examples
of oviparous animals include some bony and cartilaginous fishes (including clownfish and
blue tangs), most reptiles, some amphibians, all birds, and a few mammals (monotremes).
o In ovoviviparity, the eggs are fertilized internally, and they complete their development within
the mother. The zygotes grow into embryos, which receive their nourishment through the

6
 yolk. The organisms are fully developed when they are hatched and released by the mother.
Ovoviviparous animals include some bony fishes (mollies, guppies, and mosquitofish), some
cartilaginous fishes, and many reptiles.
o In viviparity, the eggs are fertilized internally. The embryos receive nourishment directly from
the mother’s blood through the placenta rather than from the yolk. Viviparous animals
include some cartilaginous fishes (including lemon sharks), some amphibians, a few reptiles,
and almost all mammals including humans.

ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
During development, the fertilized egg will undergo a series of mitotic divisions. This event is
needed to increase the number of cells in the developing embryo. Afterward, cells will start to migrate
and differentiate in order to form highly specialized tissues that will eventually form the future organs
of the offspring.

EMBRYOGENESIS
The activated egg will begin a
series of rapid cell divisions called
cleavage. Every cleavage cell division
occurs within a span of 10 minutes.
Cells divide and increase in number, but
the developing zygote does not increase
in size. Repeated cell division forms the
morula, a solid ball of cells. Cells that
progressively become smaller are called
blastomeres. After a series of cleavage, Figure 10 Cleavage, blastula and gastrula
[Link] (500×211) ([Link])
the blastula stage is attained.
After the formation of the blastula, gastrulation will follow. Gastrulation refers to the
rearrangement of the cells in the blastula. This is possible due to the active cell migration within the
developing embryo. As a result, three distinct layers of cells will be formed, namely, the ectoderm,
endoderm, and mesoderm. Each layer will soon form the different organs of the offspring.

Figure 11 Derivative organs of the three layers of the gastrula

germ-layers_med.jpeg (843×191) ([Link])

ORGANOGENESIS
During organogenesis, organs
and tissues are starting to form
through further cell division
and cell differentiation. One of the
early signs of organ formation in the
developing embryo is the
neurulation, which refers to the
formation of the future brain and
spinal cord in vertebrates. During
neurulation in the embryo, an
ectodermal group of cells called the
neural plate starts to fold and
eventually form the neural tube. Figure 12 Neurulation
neurulation_med.jpeg (814×503) ([Link])

7
 The neural tube is the embryonic precursor of the central nervous system. Thus, it ultimately
gives rise to the brain and the spinal cord. At the same time, the mesodermal layer of the gastrula
starts to form the notochord of the embryo. The notochord is a rod of cartilage that serves as the
primary skeletal element in the embryo and eventually forms the future vertebral column of vertebrate
species.
The process of gastrulation provides a greater understanding of organ formation. Most of the
tissues and organs of the developing organism will be derived from the three layers formed during
gastrulation.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in humans, unlike in lower animals and plants, is exclusively sexual. Thus, it
involves both the production of sex cells or gametes and their fusion during fertilization. These two
events are necessary to ensure that the zygote will be formed and that it has the complete set of
genetic instructions needed to eventually grow into an adult individual.

GAMETOGENESIS
1. Spermatogenesis refers to the process of
sperm cell production and development in
males. This process occurs in the seminiferous
tubules of the testes, which contain cells that
develop into sperm cells. Nourishment is
provided by the Sertoli cells. Sperm cells
mature by gaining motility and the capacity to
fertilize an egg cell. The entire process of
spermatogenesis takes about 65–75 days in
mature human males.
2. Oogenesis refers to the process of egg cell Figure 13 Gametogenesis
production and nourishment. The ovaries gametogenesis_med.jpeg (601×447) ([Link])
contain two layers, namely the cortex and the medulla. The cortex is the outer layer and
serves as the primary site for oogenesis. Inside the ovaries, follicles develop and protect
and nourish the developing egg cell.

FERTILIZATION
During copulation
or sexual intercourse, the
male releases mature
spermatozoa into the
reproductive tract of the
female. Sperm cells travel
from the vagina to the
fallopian tube to
meet with the egg cell for
fertilization. Fertilization
refers to the fusion of the
sperm and egg cells to
allow the formation of a
diploid zygote.
During Figure 14 Journey of a fertilized egg
fertilization, only one [Link] (1601×1089) ([Link])
sperm shall fertilize the egg. The fusion of two or more sperms with an egg can lead to polyspermy,
and it causes abnormal development. Thus, the egg has some mechanisms, namely, the “fast block”
and the “slow block” to prevent polyspermy.

8
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Pre-Implantation Embryonic Development (Germinal Stage)
o After fertilization, the zygote will travel down into the uterus, where it will be implanted and
develop into a complete and functional human.
Extraembryonic Membrane and Placental
Development
o During the second week of human development in the
uterus, the implanted embryonic cells start to organize
into layers and form the extraembryonic membranes.
These comprise the amnion, yolk sac, allantois, and
chorion. These membranes are structures that support
and protect the growing embryo.
Embryonic and Fetal Development
Embryonic Period
o At the start of the embryonic stage, the developing Figure 15 Stages of Prenatal Development
2795073-stages-of-prenatal-development-01-
embryo becomes susceptible to the effects of [Link] (1333×1000)
teratogens. These are chemicals that induce ([Link]))
developmental defects.
o The process of organ formation or organogenesis starts in the third week after fertilization. At this
time, the heart is also developed.
o In the fourth week, the eyes, arms, and legs are becoming more prominent. The embryo also starts
to increase in size due to active tissue and organ development.
o During the eighth and ninth weeks, the external genitalia or reproductive organs are starting to
form. Thus, at this point, the phenotypic sex of the developing embryo can be predicted through
ultrasonic imaging or ultrasound.
Fetal Period
o At the onset of the ninth week, further active organ formation will happen. This spans from ninth
to thirty-eight weeks of pregnancy. The formation of different organs happens simultaneously, and
the fetus starts to become more similar to a fully-formed actual baby.

If you have an internet or data connection, go to this link: [Link] or search on

Facebook the “The stages of human development. #Biology” by Hashem Al-Ghaili.

Let’s Apply (Asexual Artificial Plant Propagation)

Plant propagation is a process commonly used by agriculturists to create new
plant varieties from seeds, leaf, stem, and other plant parts. Plant propagation be
classified as artificial or natural propagation. This activity is focused on how plants
can be propagated using stem cuttings.
Materials:
onion bulb jar with narrow mouth water toothpicks
Procedure:
1. Fill the jar with water.
2. Put four toothpicks on four sides of the onion bulb.
3. Place the onion bulb on the mouth of the jar with water.
4. Make sure that the bottom portion of the jar will be submerged in water.
5. Adjust the toothpick to make sure that the onion will not be totally soaked in the water.
6. Observe the growth of the roots at the base of the onion for three days. On the third day, answer
the guide questions.

Guide Questions:
1. What is asexual propagation?
2. Did the onion root emerge after three days? How are plants capable to asexually propagate?
3. Why do think onion was used for the activity? Are all plants capable to undergo asexual
propagation?
4. What do you think is the importance of asexual reproduction in plants?

9
 Let’s Analyze
Answer the following questions on your answer sheet. (2 points each)
1. How do you think reproduction and development differ between plants and
animals?
2. Why do you think does the development of the brain consume more time than that
of the other organs?

Let’s Try
Determine the accuracy of each of the following statements. Write true if the
statement is correct and false if otherwise on your answer sheet.

1. During pollination, the seed imbibes water for activation and develops and forms a seedling.
2. After pollination, gymnosperms form seeds from ovules and fruits from their ovaries.
3. In angiosperms, the wall of the ovary becomes the pericarp of the fruit.
4. The process of sexual reproduction in animals ensures that the future generation of individuals
carries the same genetic information as to their parents.
5. In a blastula, the cells divide and increase in number, and the developing zygote also increases in
size.
6. To avoid polyspermy from occurring, the egg performs “fast-block” and “slow-block” mechanisms.
7. Tissues and organs of a newly formed offspring will arise through a series of cell division and
differentiation.
8. During fertilization, the male’s sperm cell unites with the female’s egg cell, which combines the
genetic material from both parents
9. Gametogenesis use meiosis to produce diploid gametes.
10. The fertilized egg will first undergo a series of cellular divisions before it gets implanted in the
uterus of the mother.

Let’s Create
On a short bond paper, compare and contrast the reproduction and
development between plants and animals using a Venn diagram. Your output will be
graded based on the rubric below.
Approaching Standard (1 pt) At the Standard (3 pts) Proficient (5 pts)
Similarities The student highlights 2 or less The identified character traits The identified character traits
character traits and does not are 3 to 4 and do not repeat. are 5 or more and do not
repeat. repeat.
Differences The student highlights 2 or less The identified character traits The identified character traits
character traits and does not are 3 to 4 and do not repeat. are 5 or more and do not
repeat. repeat.
Organization The Venn Diagram is very The Venn Diagram is legible The Venn Diagram is very
sloppy and it takes away from and organized. neat and well organized.
the content.

References:
Quipper (n.d.). Earth and Life Science (1st Semester Video) Quipper Limited Study Guide Unit 17: Perpetuation of Life.
Retrieved August 24, 2021 from
[Link]
Quipper (n.d). STEM Student’s Content: General Biology 1Quipper School PREMIUM Study Guide Lesson 8.1 Plant
Reproduction and Development. Retrieved August 24, 2021 from
[Link]
Quipper (n.d.). STEM Student’s Content: General Biology 2Quipper School PREMIUM Study Guide Lesson 8.2 Animal
Reproduction and Development. Retrieved August 24, 2021 from
[Link]
Quipper (n.d.). STEM Student’s Content: General Biology 2Quipper School PREMIUM Study Guide Lesson 8.3 Human
Reproduction and Development. Retrieved August 24, 2021 from
[Link]
Rcampus. (n.d.). iRubric: Compare and Contrast Venn Diagram rubric. Retrieved August 31, 2021, from
[Link]

10
LEARNING AREA GRADE 12/GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Self-Learning Module (Pansariling Pampagkatutong Modyul)
Quarter 4 - Module 1
First Edition, 2020

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders.
Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.

Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio

Development Team of the Module

Writer: Marvie V. Peregrin
Marvena Ria M. Paradero
Editor:
Reviewers: Dr. Corazon A. Javier, EPS Science – Division of Parañaque
Rowena M. Reyes
Lyndy G. Pantao
Irene B. Japlos
Illustrator:
Layout Artist:
Management Team: Wilfredo E. Cabral, Director IV
Genia V. Santos, CLMD Chief
Dennis M. Mendoza, Regional EPS In Charge of LRMS
Evangeline P. Ladines, CESO V, Schools Division Superintendent
Bernardo N. Mascariña, Curriculum Implementation Division Chief
Rodel C. Apostol, Division EPS In Charge of LRMS

Printed in the Philippines by

Department of Education – National Capital Region

Office Address: Misamis St. Bago Bantay, Quezon City
Telefax: 02-929-0153
E-mail Address: depedncr@[Link]

11