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Mid-term Western notes

“What is the West?”
→ doesn’t refer to geography, not only Europe
→ West = evolving idea

Origin
The Greek-Persian Wars began the idea of “West vs. East” when Greek city
resist Persian invasion → showing freedom over despotism (dictatorship)

Herodotus, Greek historian, quoted …

Free men fight is better than “slaves”

→ creates a long-lasting Western Idea “individualism and republicanism

(freedom and democracy)”

Anglo-French West
Clearly separated “West” and “East” as Roman empire split into

Western Eastern

Latin, Catholic Greek, Orthodox

The Renaissance in Italy revived og Greek and Roman ideals to influence

European intellectual and political thoughts

17th-19th — Anglo-French West emerged and define themself as center of

liberty, progress, and civilization

19th — Britain and France shaped modern image of “the West”

Mid-term Western notes 1

 Rise of Western Politics Traditions
1. Britain and the Magna Carta (1215)

to limit royal power and focus on law

focused idea: constitutional government and personal freedom

2. The Glorious Revolution (1688)

create “parliamentary sovereignty” to ensure that government is based on

consent of people

Britain = model government for others

3. The French revolution (1789)

redefinition of human rights, liberty, and equality

influenced by American Revolution, so France wants to popularized

equality

Colonialism
Idea of the West was built in society through colonial rule and cultural
dominance

Since British and France are the dominant that time, “Western Civilization” is
based on their view

Critiques of East/West division

1. Edward Said (1979):

The West created the idea of the "Orient" (Asian) as an alien and
uncivilized

Do this to justify colonialism and the West’s self-image as advanced and

civilized.

2. Amartya Sen (1999):

The West is not that democratic, all civilizations have had diverse political
and philosophical traditions. (not their own idea)

Mid-term Western notes 2

 ☝🏻 Quick Grasp:

West not only Europe

West mostly shaped by Greek philosophy, Christianity,

Enlightenment ideas (Americans)

Image = British and French in colonial era

Concept of West was oversimplify and ignore the fact that the
sources the idea was from (different culture, religion, country)

Thoughts on Human Nature

What is Human Nature?

Philosopher debate whether human are naturally good, evil, or neutral

Focus on Human Nature are on Social Contract Theories (how society should
be organized, why government exist, political theories)

Social Contract Theories

agreement between people, rulers to form society

explain relationship between people ↔ state (e.g. why some give up their
freedom for protection)

laws and government are not natural but crate by human to enable human
nature to grow

Mid-term Western notes 3

 Key discussion / Vocab to focus at (main contrast)
1. State of Nature

Condition before society and government exist

2. Social Contract

Agreement to create society and government

3. Sovereign

The authority (power, command) that enforces laws

Hobbes - Monarch (king queen type shi)

Locke - Elected government (consent is a key)

Rousseau - People themself

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) - Absolute Monarchy 🤴🏻

View on Human Nature

People are naturally selfish, violent, and power-hungry

Without authority, life = solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short

State of Nature

A constant state of war where people compete for power and survival

No agriculture, science, or culture due to fear of violence

Social Contract & Government

People must give up all their rights to a powerful ruler (sovereign) who
enforces order

A monarch (king queen type shi) or a strong dictator maintain peace

Mid-term Western notes 4

 Key Work

Leviathan (1651) – Argues for a strong, absolute government to prevent

chaos.

Leviathan is a monster = people if no monarch

John Locke (1632-1704) – Democracy & Natural Rights

View on Human Nature

Humans are rational and capable of self-governance

People have ”natural rights”: life, absolute liberty, ,equality, freedom, and
property

later men judge themself so natural rise considered as abused

State of Nature

Not completely chaotic, but debate over property and justice lead to
conflict

To protect rights, people own a free will to form a government

“Consent” is a key term, every government = consent of people

Social Contract & Government

“Consent” of obeying law

People elect leaders to protect their natural rights

government fails → people have the right to overthrow it

Inspired the Declaration of Independence (U.S.)

basic ideas:

1. God made all men equal and gave them the rights of life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness

Mid-term Western notes 5

 2. the main business of government is to protect these rights

3. if a government tries to withhold these rights, the people are free

to revolt and to set up a new government

Support - Constitutional Monarchy = monarch place under law, รัฐธรรมนูญ

Not support - Absolute Monarchy =all power to king queen

Key Work

Two Treatises of Government (1690) – Supports representative democracy

(government elected by citizens)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) – Direct

Democracy

View on Human Nature

People are naturally good and full of empathy, but society corrupts them

Civilization creates inequality and oppression

State of Nature

Humans once lived in a peaceful, simple life before forming societies

Social Contract & Government

A direct democracy where everyone participates in decisions = perfect

Representation (elected leaders) is not true democracy—only direct

voting is fair (everyone vote)

Inspired modern democracy (people = supreme power + use power

through electef representatives) and social justice movements

Mid-term Western notes 6

 Key Work

The Social Contract (1762) – "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in

chains."

Hobbes (Absolute Rousseau (Direct

Locke (Democracy)
Monarchy) Democracy)

Selfish, violent, Rational, capable of self- Naturally good but

Human Nature
power-hungry governance corrupted by society

Chaos and war Peaceful but unstable Peaceful and simple

State of Nature
("brutish and short") without laws before civilization

Absolute ruler Elected leaders protect Direct democracy

Government
(monarch/dictator) rights (everyone votes)

Consent to be governed,
Role of Obey sovereign for Actively participate in
can rebel if rights
Citizens safety all decisions
violated

Strong rule prevents Protect natural rights People should rule

Key Ideas
chaos (life, liberty, property) themselves

☝🏻 Quick Grasp:

Hobbes believes in strict control to prevent chaos

Locke believes in limited government to protect rights

Rousseau believes in full participation for fairness

Modern government and democracy are influenced by these

Thoughts on Justice

General Ideas of Justice

Mid-term Western notes 7

 1. Justice as Power ("Might Makes Right")

Justice is determined by those in power

e.g. Plato’s The Republic — Justice is what benefits the strong (the rulers)
and Vae Victis (Woe to the Vanquished) — The idea that the losers in war
must accept whatever terms the winners impose (Winner takes it all core)

2. Justice as Natural Law

Justice follows moral laws that apply to all + human laws too

e.g. John Locke — Rulers must follow God's law and natural law / People
have the right to resist injustice treatment

Types of Justice
1. Retributive Justice (Punishment)

Focus idea - wrongdoers should be punished in proportion to their crimes

Example - Criminal justice systems

2. Distributive Justice (Fair Distribution)

Focus idea - how to allocate resources fairly among members of a society

(resource, goods, opportunity, wealth, income, and social status)

Key question - What is the fairest way to distribute limited resources?

Example - Food rationing during WWII to ensure fairness

John Rawls - Justice as Fairness

Influenced by WWII, saw the destruction of war and unfair social structures

Justice must be based on fairness and equality

"Original Position" & "Veil of Ignorance"

Mid-term Western notes 8

 Imagine designing a society without knowing your status (rich, poor,
gender, race)

People will choose fair rules to protect themselves

Key Idea - Justice should not depend on luck or birth

Purpose - ensures impartial decision-making by having people choose

principles without knowing their place in society

Rawls’ Two Principles of Justice

1. Basic Liberty Principle

Everyone has equal rights to freedoms (e.g., speech, voting)

Rawls’ key - everyone gain equal resources

2. Difference Principle

Inequality is acceptable only if:

The benefit is reachable everyone, especially the least advantaged

one

Opportunities are open to all (no hereditary power, gender/race-

based exclusion)

Jürgen Habermas: Discourse Ethics

Grew up in Nazi Germany; saw how propaganda controlled society

Justice comes from open discussion and agreement in society

Communicative Action

Society must create justice through discussion, not just power or tradition

People must justify their ideas with reason

Mid-term Western notes 9

 e.g. Democracy, where laws are debated before being accepted

Discourse Ethics Principles

1. Universalization (U): A rule is just if everyone agrees to it without being

forced

2. Discourse Principle (D): Justice must come from open and fair discussion

Comparison of Rawls and Habermas :

Aspect Rawls Habermas

Fair creation of social rules and

Fair distribution of primary goods
Focus of importance of open, rational
through principles chosen behind
Justice discourse and carefully discussion
a "veil of ignorance.”
democracy.

social and economic (who gets

what?) centered on fair social and political (how are rules
Nature
distribution of resources and made?) communication is key
opportunities

basic liberties, opportunities, and Power (participation in decisions,

Equal Access
primary goods (income, wealth, public discourse, and democratic
To
powers, rights) participation)

Summary Chart of Theories of Distributive Justice :

Theory Key Idea Example

Egalitarian (ผู้ยืดหลักความเสมอภาค Universal

Equal share for all
ของมนุษย์ทุกคน) healthcare

Meritocratic (ผู้มีคุณธรรม) Reward based on effort/merit Grades in school

Socialist (สังคมนิยม) Resources based on need Welfare programs

Individuals keep what they earn; Free-market

Libertarian (เสรีนิยม)
voluntary sharing economy

Mid-term Western notes 10

 ☝🏻 Quick Grasp:

Rawls - Justice is fairness; fair distribution of resources

Habermas - Justice is participation; fair rule-making through

discussion

Both emphasize fairness, but one focuses on wealth distribution and

the other on decision-making

Thoughts on liberty
Isaiah Berlin: Two Concepts of Liberty

1. Negative Liberty - “Freedom from” (no society problems)

Freedom means no interference from others

essence, permission to do things or guarantee of permission to do so

e.g. Freedom to express opinions without government restriction

Coercion = lack (deprivation) of freedom

NOT inability to do something, it IS something one can do but is

forbidden

Something impossible for one to afford = Something forbidden by law

Unaffordable things can be coercive depends on how one views the

world

Coercion = bad, but freedom is still missing some coercion too

One can increase their freedom by oneself easily by just remove obstacle
to one’s will

Mid-term Western notes 11

 Risk - Too much freedom can cause conflicts in society

boundaries between freedom public and private should be built เสรีไปไม่

ดี

interference should be gone, but still exist at the boundaries at the

same time

2. Positive Liberty - "Freedom to" (no self struggle)

Freedom means controlling your own life and decisions - “be one own
master”

Freedom to help people prevent any limitation that might limit their ability
to achieve their maximum potential

e.g. Government provides education so people can make informed

choices “by themself” and to become the best version of you as one
person could be

Focus on the internal struggle on oneself

the urge to stop the impulse of our ‘lower’ nature to achieve the
‘higher’ nature

not freedom if one do something stupid or wrong

Sometimes requires external help (e.g., laws to ensure fairness)

Risk - Can justify control over individuals for their "own good."

Negative Liberty Positive Liberty

No interference from others Having the ability and support to achieve goals

Focuses on individual rights Focuses on self-mastery and societal support

Example: Free speech without Example: Free education to help people grow, universal
restriction health care, public transportation

Robert Nozick’s Libertarianism

Mid-term Western notes 12

 American philosopher known for his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974).

Argued against government interference in economic and personal matters

No ! redistribution of wealth

Core Ideas of Nozick’s Libertarianism

Inspired by John Locke’s idea of natural rights (life, liberty, and property)

refuse to restrict individual liberty, even if it benefits the whole

Believes the government should only protect people from harm but not
interfere in their lives

Entitlement Theory - true freedom = economic freedom

1. If you acquire something fairly, you are entitled to keep it

2. If you transfer property fairly, the new owner is entitled to it

3. No one is entitled to something unless it was obtained fairly

Against Taxes & Regulations -

Believes taxation is a form of theft

Thinks people should be free to buy, sell, and own property

without government control

Opposes laws like food safety regulations, seeing them as

violations of personal choice as they violate people rights to buy
and sell what they want

Criticism of Nozick’s Libertarianism

Creates extreme wealth inequality

Ignores social responsibilities and the needs of the disadvantaged

Modern Libertarianism & Case Studies

Mid-term Western notes 13

 1. PorcFest – A Libertarian Experiment

A yearly festival in New Hampshire where people experiment with minimal

government

Features -

No regulations on businesses

Use of alternative currencies like Bitcoin

Seminars on anarchy (no government) and the collapse of the state

Shows what a world without government might look like, but also highlights
risks (lack of law enforcement, potential for exploitation)

2. Sovereign Citizens – Libertarianism Taken to the Extreme

A movement that rejects government authority

Members believe they are separate from the U.S. legal system

They refuse to pay taxes or follow federal and state laws

Considered a domestic threat by the FBI because some members use

violence against law enforcement

Karl Popper’s Paradox of Tolerance

Philosopher known for his defense of liberal democracy

Introduced the Paradox of Tolerance in The Open Society and Its

Enemies (1945)

The Paradox of Tolerance

Key Idea - Unlimited tolerance leads to intolerance taking over

simple term - if a society extends tolerance to those who are intolerant, it

risks enabling the eventual dominance of intolerance, thereby undermining
the very principle of tolerance

Mid-term Western notes 14

 If we allow intolerant groups (such as hate groups) to grow, they will
destroy tolerance itself

Solution - Society must reject extreme intolerance to protect the freedom of

all

e.g. hate speech laws prevent harmful beliefs from spreading

How Tolerance Can Be a Threat:

Tolerating Everything Rejecting Extreme Intolerance

Allows hate groups to grow Protects a diverse and free society

Can lead to social instability Ensures tolerance survives

Example: Allowing hate speech Example: Banning calls for violence

Summary chart:

Theory Key Idea Strength Weakness

Negative Liberty No interference from Protects individual Can lead to

(Berlin) others rights inequality

Positive Liberty Freedom to achieve Helps people reach

Can justify control
(Berlin) goals full potential

Nozick’s Maximizes personal Ignores social

Minimal government
Libertarianism freedom responsibilities

Popper’s Paradox of Must limit extreme Protects a tolerant Risk of limiting free
Tolerance intolerance society speech

☝🏻 Quick grasp:

Balance is key: Too much freedom can cause inequality, but too
much control can take away personal rights

Real-world applications: Ideas of liberty influence laws on free

speech, social programs, and taxation

Mid-term Western notes 15

 Thoughts on Economy
Mercantilism (16th - 17th Century)
An economic system where governments control trade to increase national
wealth and power, primarily through accumulating gold and silver

Simple term - Mercantilism is an economic practice by which governments

used their economies to augment state power at the expense of other
countries. Governments ensure that exports > imports to accumulate wealth in
the form of ทองคำแท่ง (mostly gold and silver).

Key Ideas -

National wealth = gold & silver

More exports, fewer imports (to keep wealth inside the country)

Colonies supply raw materials and exclusive markets

Protectionist policies - tariffs (ระบบภาษี), trade restrictions, and navigation

laws

Famous Figures

Jean-Baptiste Colbert (France)

Believed wealth increase in one country means a loss for another

Josiah Child (England)

Supported foreign trade as a source of power

Bullionism: The belief that a nation's wealth depends on its stock of precious
metals.

Mid-term Western notes 16

 Classical Free Market Capitalism (Adam Smith)
A system where markets operate with minimal government intervention,
promoting free trade and competition

Key Ideas -

Invisible Hand - Markets naturally regulate themselves

metaphor for unseen force that move free market economy (the one
doing for their own benefit profit)

Free Trade - Everyone benefits from trade

Laissez-Faire - Governments should not interfere in the economy

Famous Figure -

Adam Smith (1723–1790): Wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), arguing

against mercantilism

giving everyone the freedom to produce and exchange goods as they

pleased (free trade) and opening the markets up to domestic and foreign
competition

Positive-Sum Game: Trade benefits all involved, unlike mercantilism's idea of

a zero-sum game

e.g. when two parties both gain financially by participating in a contest, no

matter who wins or loses

Zero-Sum Game: one in which no wealth is created or destroyed

e.g. Both parties in the trade agree to give away something of theirs in
exchange for something another party has and would like to trade

The Great Depression (1929-1939)

A severe global economic crisis caused by market failures

Mid-term Western notes 17

 Causes -

Overconfidence in the stock market (Roaring ‘20s / 1920s)

Excessive use of credit

Stock market crash (Black Tuesday, 1929: investors traded some 16 million
shares on the New York Stock Exchange in a single day)

Bank failures led to panic and economic collapse

Effects -

25% unemployment rate

Business closures and falling industrial production

Led to a shift away from pure capitalism (ทุนนิยม)

Economic Depression: A prolonged downturn in economic activity, worse

than a recession (ภาวะเศรษฐกิจถดถอย)

Keynesian Economics (John Maynard Keynes)

An economic theory arguing that government intervention (การแทรกแซงของ
รัฐบาล) can stabilize the economy

justify government intervention through public policies that aim to achieve full
employment and price stability

Key Ideas -

Government spending can boost demand and create jobs

Free markets don’t always self-correct

New Deal (USA): Large government programs helped recover from the
Great Depression

Mid-term Western notes 18

 Famous Figure:

John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946): Believed governments should

increase spending during recessions

Aggregate Demand: The total demand for goods and services in an economy

ความต้องการขายทั้งหมดของสินค้าและบริการขั้นสุดท้ายในระบบเศรษฐกิจ

Neoliberalism (Late 20th Century - Today)

A modern form of capitalism focusing on deregulation, privatization
(transaction by which governments sell off all or part of an interest in a state
owned asset), and reducing government intervention (ยกเลิกกฎระเบียบการแปรรูป)

Key Ideas -

Market freedom is more important than social policies

Privatization of public services

Globalization and free trade agreements

Famous Figures:

Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek: Advocated for free markets

Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher: Implemented neoliberal (เสรีนิยมใหม่)

policies

Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs): Economic policies imposed by

international financial institutions (IMF, World Bank) to promote free-market
reforms

a set of economic reforms that a country must adhere to in order to secure

a loan from the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank

Mid-term Western notes 19

 summary:

Role of
Theory Core Idea View on Trade Key Figures
Government

Zero-sum game
Wealth = Strong control (one nation’s
Mercantilism Colbert, Child
gold/silver over trade gain is another’s
loss)

Free markets Positive-sum

Classical Minimal
regulate game (mutual Adam Smith
Capitalism intervention
themselves benefit)

Active
Government Supports trade
Keynesian intervention John Maynard
can fix market but with state
Economics (spending, Keynes
failures involvement
regulation)

Free markets Reduce Friedman,

Globalized free
Neoliberalism should government Hayek, Reagan,
trade
dominate influence Thatcher

Mid-term Western notes 20