Primary sensing element,

transducer and sensor

Sensor Vs Transducer
Typical pressure sensor functional blocks.
Primary and secondary transducer
ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
An electric transducer is a sensing device by which the physical quantity
to be measured is converted into an electrical voltage/current proportional to the
input signal. A transducer which converts a non-electrical quantity into analog
electrical signal may be considered as consisting of two parts
These two parts are
i) Sensing element, and
ii) Transduction element
1. Sensing or Detector Element
A detector or a sensing element is that part of a transducer which
responds to a physical phenomenon or a change in a physical phenomenon.
2. Transduction Element
A transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an
electrical output.
Classification of Transducers
A transducer can be classified
(i) On the basis of transduction form used,
(ii) As primary and secondary transducers
(iii) As passive and active transducers
(iv) As analog and digital transducers and
(v) As transducers and inverse transducers
1. Classification based upon principle of transduction
The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction
as resistive, inductive, capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the
input quantity into resistance, inductance or capacitance respectively.
2. Primary and Secondary Transducers
Primary transducers are transducers which convert a physical quantity
into another form. But the secondary transducers convert the output signal from
the primary transducer into a usable output (i.e. an electrical signal).
 Passive and active Transducers
An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical parameter anddoes not
require an external power source for its operation. Thus active transducers are self-generating devices.
Typical examples of active transducers are piezo electric sensors (for generation of charge corresponding to
pressure) and photo voltaic cells (for generation of voltage in response to illumination).
Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction from an auxiliary power source. Thus passive
transducers require an external electrical source to convert the physical parameters into an electrical signal. They are
also known as externally powered transducers. They depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L and C).
Typical examples are strain gauges (for resistance change in response to pressure) and thermistors (for resistance
change corresponding to temperature variations). In the absence of external power, the transducer cannot work and it
hence is called a passive transducer.

4. Analog and Digital Transducers

The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may a continuous function of time or the output
may be in discrete steps. Analog transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous
function of time.
Examples are strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple, thermistor etc. Its output is a continuous function of time.
Digital transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output which is in the form of pulses
5. Transducers and Inverse Transducers
A transducer can be broadly defined as a device which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity. A
piezoelectric crystal acts as an inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, it changes its
dimensions causing a mechanical displacement.
Sensing Elements
The main types of sensing elements are

• Bourdon tubes,
• diaphragms,
• capsules, and
• bellows .

All except diaphragms provide a fairly large displacement

that is useful in mechanical gauges and for electrical
sensors that require a significant movement.
 Sensing Elements

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped

Bourdon tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a
convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).
Primary Pressure Elements
Capsule, Bellows & Spring Opposed Diaphragm
 Bellows

 Made of Bronze, S.S., BeCu, Monel etc..

 The movement is proportional to number of convolutions
 Sensitivity is proportional to size
 In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower pressure than a
diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
 Accuracy in the range of 1% span
Bellows
Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tubes

• (a) C-type tube.

• (b) Spiral tube.
• (c) Helical tube
Bourdon Tubes
Diaphragm

(a) flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm

• A diaphragm usually is designed so that the deflection-

versus-pressure characteristics are as linear as possible
over a specified pressure range, and with a minimum of
hysteresis and minimum shift in the zero point.
Diaphragm
Capsule
A capsule is formed
by joining the
peripheries of two
diaphragms through
soldering or welding.

Used in some
absolute pressure
gages.
Use of capsule element in pressure gage
Proving ring
Temperature Measurement
Thermistor
Thermocouples
• What Is A Thermocouple Sensor??
• Basic Working Principle
• Practical Thermocouple Construction
• Thermocouple Materials
• Standard Thermocouple Types
• Thermocouple Color Codes
• Characteristics
• Major Specifications
 What Is A Thermocouple Sensor??

Thermocouples are among the easiest temperature

sensors to use and obtain and are widely used in science
and industry.

Thermocouples are the most common temperature

sensing device. They can be made in very tough designs,
they are very simple in operation and measure
temperature at a point. Over different types they cover
from -250C to +2500C.

Accurate temperature measurements can be made with

thermocouples sensors at low cost with shop-built probes
and ordinary low-level voltmeters.
 Basic Working Principle

The principle of operation is on the Seebeck effect. A temperature

gradient along a conductor creates an EMF. If two conductors of
different materials are joined at one point, an EMF is created
between the open ends which is dependent upon the temperature
of the junction. As T1 increases, so does V. The EMF also depends
on the temperature of the open ends T2.
Practical Thermocouple Construction

A thermocouple construction consist of two conductors, welded

together at the measuring point and insulated from each other
long the length. It will usually have an outer protection sheath.
 Thermocouple Materials
The three most common thermocouple materials for
moderate temperatures are Iron-Constantan (Type J),
Copper-Constantan (Type T), and Chromel-Alumel (Type K).

1-) The first named element of the pair is the positive

element.
2-) The negative wire is color coded red.

All three types (J, K, and T) are available as insulated

duplexed pairs from 0.001-inch diameter on up. For
accuracy, and minimum system disturbance, the smaller
the wire the better, but wire smaller than 0.003-inch
diameter is very fragile.
 Characteristics
Thermocouples have non-linear characteristics
given by an approximating polynomial.
For example for type J (range 1, -210 to 760°C) the
characteristic is given by

where V is voltage and T in °C

The output signal from a thermocouple is up to 50mV.

 Standard Thermocouple Types
Iron-Constantan: Iron-Constantan (Type J, color coded white and red)
generates about 50 µV/°C (28 µV/°F). The Iron wire is magnetic. Junctions
can be made by welding or soldering, using commonly available solders
and [Link]-Constantan thermocouples can generate a galvanic EMF
between the two wires and should not be used in applications where they
might get wet.

Chromel Alumel: Chromel-Alumel (Type K, color coded yellow and red)

generates about 40 µV/°C (22 µV/°F). The Alumel wire is magnetic.
Junctions can be made by welding or soldering, but high temperature
silver-solders and special fluxes must be [Link]-Alumel
thermocouples generate electrical signals, while the wires are being
bent, and should not be used on vibrating systems, unless strain relief
loops can be provided.

Copper-Constantan: Copper-Constantan (Type T, color coded blue and red)

generates about 40 µV/°C (22 µV/°F). Neither wire is magnetic. Junctions
can be made by welding or soldering with commonly available solders
and [Link]-Constantan thermocouples are very susceptible to
conduction error, due to the high thermal conductivity of the copper, and
should not be used unless long runs of wire (100 to 200 wire diameters)
can be laid along an isotherm.
 Major Specifications
Type J: Iron / Constantan: Useful range of temperature is -300F to 1200F.
Maximum temperature 1600F. Possible problems: Oxidizes rapidly due to
the iron wire. The use of the stainless steelmetal sheathed MgO style of
construction has overcome some of this problem and is much preferred
over the beaded bare wire style of thermocouple.

Type K: Chromel / Alumel Useful range of temperature is -300F to 1800F.

Maximum temperature 2300F.

Type E: Chromel / Constantan Useful range of temperature is -300F to 1800F.

Maximum temperature 1000F.

Type T: Copper / Constantan Useful range of temperature is -300F to 700F.

Maximum temperature 700F.

Type R and S: Platinum / Platinum-Rhodium Useful range of temperature is

40F to 3000F. Maximum temperature [Link] the R and S
thermocouples are used for very high temperatures. These couples are
relatively expensive compared to other thermocouples since they are
made of [Link] thermocouples must not touch the sheath if a
metal sheath is used for construction. Normally a ceramic protective
tube and ceramic beads are used for construction for both high
temperature reasons and to prevent contamination of the noble metal.
 Thermocouple Color Codes
Thermocouple wiring is color coded by thermocouple
types. Different countries utilize different color coding.
Jacket coloring is sometimes a colored stripe instead of a
solid color as shown.
Capabilities and Limitations
Capabilities:
- Wide Range
- Fast Response
- Passive
- Inexpensive
Limitations:
- CJC
- Non-Linear
Bi metallic thermometer
A temperature-measuring instrument in
which the differential thermal
expansion of thin, dissimilar metals,
bonded together into a narrow strip
and coiled into the shape of a helix or
spiral, is used to actuate a pointer. Also
known as differential thermometer.
Thermistor
• Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance and
temperature for the following discussion:

• ΔR = k ΔT

• where

• ΔR = change in resistance
• ΔT = change in temperature
• k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
• Thermistors can be classified into two types depending
on the sign of k.

• If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing

temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, Posistor.

• If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing

temperature, and the device is called a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.

• Source: [Link]
 Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS

Thermistor-choice is based on the

nominal resistance you want at the
operating temperature range, on the size,
and on the time constant.

Time constants are about 5 - 10 seconds.

(Check this out with your thermistor).
 Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS
Pyrometers
Pyrometer
•To measure temperature of a very hot body
•Where thermometers cannot brought into contact or
•Where hot bodies are moving
•Measurements done by measuring energy radiated by a hot body or by
comparison of colour
•Wave length of thermal radiation-0.01 to 100 µ m
Sefan- Boltzmann’s law
Wb = σ T4

b/w two bodies

Wb = σ (T14 – T2 4)
Emissive power of blackbody is
Wby = C1 λ -5 / e (C2/ λ T)
where λ – wavelength in cm
C1 – I radiation const
- 3.74 X10 9 erg/s/[Link]/0.01µcm
C2 – 1.438 cm K
T- absolute temp of black body
Force Sensing
Mechanical Tactile sensor

Mechanical Transducer with a linear

poteniometer
Pneumatic Tactile sensor
Strain gauge
 Typical apparent strain for three alloys commonly used in
Typical variation in the gage factor of strain-gage alloys strain gages. These data are based on an instrument gage
as a function of temperature. factor of 2.00.
 Strain gages mounted on a cantilever beam for
displacement measurement produce electrical signals
proportional to cam motion

Effect of gage length on indicated

strain in the presence of a severe
Displacement transducer designed for continuous, positive
strain gradient. The shorter gage on the
contact with moving object
right indicates a higher strain. An
infinitesimal gage length would be
necessary to indicate the peak strain
Fore Measurement
Ring gage for force measurement. This type of gage provides
sensitive axial load measurement without undue loss of
rigidity or ruggedness
Specifications of Bonded Strain Gauge :
•Typical size - Typically 3mm × 3mm × 3mm, but some
times bigger than 2.5mm × 12.5mm
•Resistance - 120Ω to 1000Ω
•Maximum excitation voltage - 5 V to 10 V
•Construction material - Nichrome-copper, nickel-
chromium, or nickel-ferrous alloys.
Advantages of Bonded Strain Gauge :
•Accuracy is more.
•This can be available in different shapes.
•High sensitivity and stability.
•Perfect bonding can be done.
•Can measure high pressure.
Disadvantages of Bonded Strain Gauge :
•These are sensitive to change in temperature.
Applications of Bonded Strain Gauge :
•This can be used along with different transducers for
different applications.
•Can be used in stress analysis applications.
Different Types of Rosette strain Gauge
Widely used commercial form of axial force transducer for
large loads

Piston-type pressure transducer Pressure pickup whose output is a

with diaphragm seal for piston. function of diaphragm strain. As
Pressure load on piston head is diaphragm deforms under
sensed by strain gages on pressure, strain is transmitted to
supporting column. gage to produce electrical signa
Readily made pressure transducer
consisting of length of tubing with
strain gages attached. Dilation of the
tube with pressure creates strain in
gages

Potentiometer circuit for dynamic Overall arrangement of circuit

strain signals. Nearly constant for instrumenting dynamic
current through the circuit, strain. Signal from gage is take
combined with varying gage to ac amplifier through isolatin
resistance, produces output signal. capacitor
Wheatstone-bridge circuit for static
and dynamic strain measurement

Block diagram of basic elements of strain-gage

instrumentation system.
Capacitive touch sensor
Peizo Resistance Force sensor
Optical force sensor

Tactile sensor, frustrated internal Detecting shear force with micro-lever

reflection
Opto-mechanical array touch sensor
Load Cell
Velocity and vibration measurement
[Link] sensing element which is a rod is a permanent magnet.
[Link] rod is rigidly coupled to the device whose velocity is
being measured.
[Link] is a coil surrounding the permanent magnet.
[Link] permanent magnet is movable, that is, it can move in
and out of the coil.
Operation of Moving magnet type velocity Transducer
[Link] instrument is fixed to the device whose velocity is to
measured.
[Link] to the application of the velocity, the permanent magnet
moves in or out of the coil. Due to its motion, the length of the
air gap varies.
[Link] output voltage also varies due to the motion of the
magnet and the amplitude of the voltage is directly
proportional to velocity.
[Link] polarity of the output voltages determines the direction
of the velocity.
Advantages of Moving magnet type velocity Transducer
[Link] maintenance is negligible.
[Link] output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity.
Seismic Type Velocity Transducer
• This type of device was developed for its first industrial use in the
late 1940s by Arthur Crawford, and its application was extended
during the 60s and 70s.
• Advantages of the seismic transducer:
• Directly measure velocity, which is proportional to the severity of
the vibration.
• No external power supply is required, allowing you to send the
electrical signal over long cabling distances by cable, making it
ideal for remote permanently installed applications.
• It only requires simple differentiation or integration to convert the
signal to other amplitude units. This results on a better quality of
data processing.
• They have a very good signal to noise ratio within their frequency
range.
• Disadvantages of the seismic transducer:
• The dimensions of the transducer are relatively large, requiring
large magnetic bases for temporary mounting. Consequently, the
frequency range is somewhat limited: 10-1,000 Hz.
• The transducer output varies with temperature. At high
temperatures, the output is reduced due to the weakening of the
magnetic field. However, specific transducers have been
developed for high temperatures.
• The measurement orientation, vertical or horizontal of the
transducer can alter the output signal around 5-10%.
• Calibration can be lost due to wear and temperature changes.
[Link] instrument has permanent pole
pieces which generate the magnetic field.
[Link] is a pivoted arm on which a coil is
mounted.
[Link] is a mass attached to the end of
the coil.
[Link] whole device is contained in an
antimagnetic case.
Operation of Moving coil Type Velocity
Transducer
[Link] velocity to be measured is applied to
the arm.
[Link] to this coil moves in the magnetic
field.
3.A voltage is generated on account of
motion of the coil in the magnetic field.
[Link] output voltage is proportional to the
velocity.
Advantages of Moving coil Type Velocity
Transducer
[Link] antimagnetic case reduces the effects
of stray magnetic field.
[Link] is obtained electrically.
Angular velocity measurement
Hand speed Indicator
Fly-ball tachometer
DC Tacho generator
AC tachogenerator
Toothed rotor Tacho-generator Photoelectric tachometer
Shaft speed measurement using strobotron
Torque measurement
Torque reaction method
Torque reaction method

Torque sensor method

Inductive torque transducer
Shaft with strain
gauge

Stroboscope of
torque
measurement
Torque transducer using single toothed flange
Magnetostructive transducer
Gravity balance
Rope brake
Prony brake
 Eddy current brakes

Fluid brakes
DC dynamometer
Servo controlled dynamometer
DC absorption dynamometer
Instantaneous power measurement
Instantaneous power and energy using
alternator
Flow Measurements
 Mass flow meters measure
the fluid mass flow rate that
travels through a tube per
unit of time. There are two
types of mass flowmeters as
mentioned below
• Coriolis Mass flowmeter
and
• Thermal Mass flowmeters
Orifice Type Flow meter •The difference in pressure
exists between the upstream &
downstream sides of a
restriction in a confined fluid
stream, which is related to the
square of fluid velocity.
• Q α √ ▲P
Advantages
Where Q of Orifice Plates
= Volume flow rate and
•Easily installed between
▲P = Differential pressure flanges.
•Fabrication
between tapsis simple and inexpensive.
•No limitations on the materials of
construction, line size, and flow rate
•Cost is relatively independent of pipe
diameter since the cost of DPT is fixed.
•No process interruption for the exchange of
the DP transmitter.
Disadvantages of Orifice Plates
•High permanent pressure loss & hence high
energy consumption to overcome pressure
loss.
•Impractical for systems with low static
pressure.
Venturimeter A venturi tube measures flow rates by
constricting fluids and measuring a
differential pressure drop. In the
upstream cone of the Venturi meter,
velocity is increased, and the pressure is
decreased. Pressure drop in the
upstream cone is utilized to measure the
rate of flow through the instrument.

Advantages of Venturimeters
•Lower head losses than orifice plates
reducing the capital expenditure on
pumping eqpt. / save pump energy
costs
•No process interruption for the
exchange of the DP transmitter.
•Can be used for temperature
extremes
•Cryogenics or High Temperatures
Disadvantages of Venturimeters
•Highly expensive
•Larger and heavier to handle.
Annubar Flowmeter
• The Annubar flowmeter is a device to measure the fluid flow (liquid, vapor, or
gas) in a pipeline. The flow is measured by creating a differential pressure. As
per Bernoulli’s theorem, this differential pressure is proportional to the square
of the fluid velocity in the pipeline. The annubar flowmeter measures this
differential pressure which is then converted to flow rate using a secondary
device.
• The probe is installed in the median line as a pressure sensor.
• With the flow, the probe records both the static and the dynamic pressure via
the probe openings.
• In the minus chamber of the annubar, lying on the opposite side, only the static
pressure has any effect
• Advantages of Annubar flowmeters
• The integral manifold head allows direct mounting of DP transmitters
• Hot tapping: Insertion/ installation without system shutdown
• Very low-pressure drop
• Disadvantages of Annubar flow meters.
• Not suitable for viscous and slurry applications
• Can be used only for clean fluids.
Variable Area Flowmeters/ Rotameters
• Variable area flowmeters or rotameters are one of the widely used common
flowmeter types. It consists of a vertical glass or plastic tube. The size of the tube
varies from top to bottom; because of this, it got its name as a variable area
flowmeter. Inside the tube, there is a free-moving metering float.
• A free-moving float is balanced inside a vertical tapered tube
• As the fluid flows upward the float remains steady when the dynamic forces acting on
it are zero.
• The flow rate is indicated by the position of the float relative to a calibrated scale.
Advantages of Rotameters
• Simple, robust, and linear output
• It does not require external impulse or lead lines.
• The pressure drop is minimal and fairly constant.
Disadvantages of Rotameters
• Vertical installation only.
• Glass tubes limit pressure & temperature and are subject to breakage from hydraulic
& thermal shock
• Glass tubes eroded by undissolved solids & unsuitable for metering alkaline solutions
• Metal tube meters are more expensive.
• Foreign particles can accumulate around the float & block the flow
Magnetic Flowmeters
Operate on Faraday’s Law of magnetic induction.
•When a conductive fluid moves in a magnetic field, a
voltage is generated between two electrodes at right
angles to the fluid velocity and field orientation.
•The flow tube has a fixed area & field intensity so the
developed
Advantages of voltage
magneticis linearly
Flowmeters proportional to the
volumetric flowbyrate.
•Flow rate unaffected fluid density, consistency, viscosity, turbulence,
or piping configuration.
•Highly accurate due to the absence of moving parts/ external sensing
lines
•Corrosion-resistant using Teflon liner and platinum electrodes
•Wide flow measuring ranges & no pressure drop

Disadvantages of Magnetic Flowmeters

•Costly, relative to other flowmeter types.
•The temperature of the fluids being metered is limited by the liner
material rating.
•Cannot be used for gas flow measurements
• Vortex Flowmeters
• An obstruction is placed across the pipe bore at a right angle to fluid flow.
• As fluid flows, vortices are shed from alternating sides of the body & this shedding
frequency is directly proportional to fluid velocity.
• Detection of the vortices by means of pressure changes in the vortex stream.
• The rate of creation of vortices is directly proportional to the flow rate.
• Advantages of Vortex Flowmeters
• Minimal maintenance, no moving parts.
• Calibration using fluid flow is not required & unaffected by viscosity, density, pressure, and
temperature within operating specifications.
• Digital or analog output.
• Disadvantages of Vortex Flowmeters
• At low flows, pulses are not generated and the flowmeter can read low or even zero.
• Reynolds number should be greater than 10000.
• Vibration can cause errors and inaccuracy.
• Correct installation is critical as protruding gasket or weld beads can cause vortices to
form, leading to inaccuracy.
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
•A pair (or pairs) of transducers, each having
its own transmitter and receiver, are placed on
the pipe wall, one (set) on the upstream and
the other (set) on the downstream.
•The time for acoustic waves to travel from
the upstream transducer to the downstream
transducer (td) is shorter than the time it
requires for the same waves to travel from the
downstream to the upstream (tu).
•The larger the difference, the higher the flow
velocity.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Flowmeters
•No obstruction/ moving parts in the flow path
•No pressure drop
•Low maintenance cost
•Multi-path models have higher accuracy for
wider ranges of Reynolds number
•Can be used in corrosive fluid flow
Turbine Flowmeters
•Consists of a multi-bladed rotor mounted at right
angles to the flow & suspended in the fluid stream on a
free-running bearing.
•The diameter of the rotor is slightly less than the inside
diameter of the flow metering chamber.
•Speed of rotation of rotor proportional to the
volumetric flow rate.
Advantages of Turbine Flowmeter
•Very accurate. Commonly used to prove other meters.
•The digital output provides for direct totalizing,
batching, or digital blending without reducing accuracy.
•There is less tendency to read high in pulsating flow
than in head or variable-area type meters.
Disadvantages of Turbine Flowmeters
•Not usable in dirty streams or with corrosive materials.
•Subject to fouling by foreign materials -fibers, tars, etc.
•Bearings are subject to wear or damage. Shift in
calibration if bearings replaced
•It can be damaged by overspeeding (over 150 percent)
or by hydraulic shock.
•Pressure loss at rated flow varies & can be high.
Positive Displacement Flowmeters
•This meter repeatedly entraps the fluid into a known
quantity and then passes it out.
•The quantity of the fluid that has passed is based on
the number of entrapments.
•The volume flow rate can be calculated from the
revolution rate of the mechanical device. Advantages of PD Flowmeters
•Good accuracy and high rangeability
•Can be used in viscous liquid flow
•Low to medium initial set-up cost
•Require no power supply and is available
in a wide variety of readout devices
Disadvantages of PD Flowmeters
•Maintenance is required at frequent
intervals because of the `moving parts.
•High-pressure drop due to obstruction
•Not suitable for low flow rate
•Not suitable for fluids with suspended
solids
•Gas (bubbles) in liquid could significantly
decrease the accuracy
Thermal Mass Flowmeter
•Operates by monitoring the cooling effect of a gas
stream as it passes over a heated transducer.
•Gas flow passes over two PT100 RTD transducers.
•The temperature transducer monitors the actual gas
process temperature, whilst the self-heated transducer
is maintained at a constant differential temperature by
varying the current through it.
•The greater the mass flow passing over the heated
transducer, the greater the current required to keep a
constant differential temperature.
•The measured heater current is, therefore, a measure
of the gas mass flow rate.
Advantages Of Thermal Mass Flowmeter
•No temperature or pressure compensation required
•Linear output (as temperature differential is
proportional to mass flow)
•Can be used on corrosive process streams if proper
materials are specified
•DC voltage or 4 to 20 mA dc outputs are available
Disadvantages of Thermal Mass Flowmeters
•Practical for gas flow only
•Subject to blockage by foreign particles or precipitated
deposits due to small openings in the flowmeter
Coriolis Mass Flowmeter
•When a moving mass is subjected to an oscillation
perpendicular to its direction of movement, Coriolis
forces occur depending on the mass flow.
•When the tube is moving upward during the first half
of a cycle, the fluid flowing into the meter resists being
forced up by pushing down on the tube.
•On the opposite side, the liquid flowing out of the
meter resists having its vertical motion decreased by
pushing up on the tube. This action causes the tube to
twist.
•This twisting movement is sensed by a pick-up and is
directly related to the mass flow rate

Advantages of Coriolis Mass Flowmeters

•Capable of measuring difficult handling fluids
•Independent of density changes, flow profile and flow
turbulence. Hence straight lengths are not required.
•No routine maintenance is required since no moving
parts
•High accuracy
Disadvantages of Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
•Not available for large pipes (up to 150 mm only)
•High flow velocities are required for detection
resulting in a high-pressure drop
•Expensive compared to other flowmeters
(1) End fitting — flange
shown;
(2) flowmeter body;
(3) rotation pickup —
magnetic, reluctancetype
shown;
(4) permanent magnet;
(5) pickup cold wound on
pole piece;
(6) rotor blade;
(7) rotor hub;
(8) Rotor shaft bearing —
journal type shown;
(9) rotor shaft;
(10) diffuser support and flow
straightener;
(11) diffuser;
(12) flow conditioning plate
(dotted) — optional with
some meters.
Principle of transit time flowmeters.
Pressure Measurements
 Pressure definition
• Pressure is the action of one force against another over, a surface.
The pressure P of a force F distributed over an area A is defined as:
P = F/A
Static, dynamic, and impact pressures

• Static pressure is the pressure of fluids or gases that are stationary or not
in motion.
• Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it
impacts on a surface or an object due to its motion or flow. In Fig., the
dynamic pressure is (B − A).
• Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum of the static and dynamic
pressures on a surface or object. Point B in Fig. depicts the impact
pressure.
Definition Of Pressure
Definition Of Pressure
Absolute pressure
The pressure is referenced to zero absolute pressure and has units of
psia. Absolute pressure can only have a positive value.

Gauge pressure
The pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure and by convention
is measured in the positive direction, i.e. 7 psig.

Vacuum pressure
The pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure and by convention
is measured in the negative direction, i.e. -50 mm Hg.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
 Pressure Measurement
A number of measurement units are used for pressure. They are as follows:
1. Pounds per square foot (psf) or pounds per square inch (psi)
2. Atmospheres (atm)
3. Pascals (N/m2) or kilopascal (1000Pa)*
4. Torr = 1 mm mercury
5. Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa
6. 14.696 lbf/in2 equals 33.9 feet of H2O
7. 14.696 lbf/in2 equals 29.921 inches of of Hg
 Pressure Units
• As previously noted, pressure is force per unit area and
historically a great variety of units have been used,
depending on their suitability for the application.

• For example, blood pressure is usually measured in

mmHg because mercury manometers were used
originally.

• Atmospheric pressure is usually expressed in in mmHg

for the same reason.

• Other units used for atmospheric pressure are bar and

atm.
Pressure Units
The following conversion factors should help in dealing with
the various units:

1 psi= 51.714 mmHg

= 2.0359 [Link]
= 27.680 in.H2O
= 6.8946 kPa
1 bar= 14.504 psi
1 atm. = 14.696 psi
Wet Meters (Manometers)
 Manometer basics
 Characterized by its inherent
accuracy and simplicity of
operation.

 It’s the U-tube manometer, which

is a U-shaped glass tube partially
filled with liquid.

 This manometer has no moving

parts and requires no calibration.

 Manometer measurements are

functions of gravity and the
liquid’s density, both physical
properties that make the U-tube
manometer a NIST standard for
accuracy.
Manometer
• Gauge pressure is a
measurement relative to
atmospheric pressure and
it varies with the
barometric reading.
• A gauge pressure
measurement is positive
when the unknown
pressure exceeds
atmospheric pressure (A),
and is negative when the
unknown pressure is less
than atmospheric
pressure (B).
 Variations on the U-Tube Manometer
• The pressure reading is
always the difference between
fluid heights, regardless of the
tube sizes.

• With both manometer legs

open to the atmosphere, the
fluid levels are the same (A).

• With an equal positive

pressure applied to one leg of
each manometer, the fluid
levels differ, but the distance
between the fluid heights is
the same (B).
 Reservoir (Well) Manometer
In a well-type manometer, the
cross-sectional area of one leg
(the well) is much larger than the
other leg. When pressure is
applied to the well, the fluid lowers
only slightly compared to the fluid
rise in the other leg.
Reservoir (Well) Manometer
• In this design one leg is replaced by a
large diameter well so that the pressure
differential is indicated only by the height
of the column in the single leg.
• The pressure difference can be read
directly on a single scale. For static
balance,
P2 − P1 = d (1 +A1/A2) h
Where
• A1 = area of smaller-diameter leg
• A2 = area of well

If the ratio of A1/A2 is small compared with

unity, then the error in neglecting this
term becomes negligible, and the static
balance relation becomes P2 − P1 = dh
Range of Elastic-Element Pressure Gages
Pressure Gauges

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

• In “C” type Bourdon tube, a section of tubing that is closed at one end is
partially flattened and coiled.
• When a pressure is applied to the open end, the tube uncoils.
• This movement provides a displacement that is proportional to the
applied pressure.
• The tube is mechanically linked to a pointer on a pressure dial to give a
calibrated reading.
Pressure Gauges

Diaphragm-type pressure gauge

 To amplify the motion that a diaphragm capsule produces, several

capsules are connected end to end.
 Diaphragm type pressure gauges used to measure gauge, absolute, or
differential pressure.
 They are normally used to measure low pressures of 1 inch of Hg, but
they can also be manufactured to measure higher pressures in the
range of 0 to 330 psig.
 They can also be built for use in vacuum service.
 Dead-weight pressure gauge
9 3
7
1
2
5 8
2

4
6

• A cylindrical piston 1 is placed inside a stainless-steel cylinder 2.

• The measuring pressure is supplied through the vent 8 to the fluid 4.
• The gravitational force developed by calibrated weights 3 can balance this
force and the piston itself..
• The balance should be achieved for a certain position of the piston against
a pointer 9 of the stainless-steel cylinder.
• A manual piston pump 5 is used to achieve approximate force balance (to
increase pressure in the system), whereas a wheel-type piston pump 6
serves for accurate balancing.
• A Bourdon-type pressure gauge 7 is used for visual reading of pressure.
Calibration of Pressure Sensing Devises
Potentiometric type sensor
 A mechanical device such as a
diaphragm is used to move the wiper arm
of a potentiometer as the input pressure
changes.
 A direct current voltage (DC) V is applied
to the top of the potentiometer (pot), and
the voltage that is dropped from the
wiper arm to the bottom of the pot is sent
to an electronic unit.
 It normally cover a range of 5 psi to
10,000 psi.
 Can be operated over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Subject to wear because of the
mechanical contact between the slider
and the resistance element.
 Therefore, the instrument life is fairly
short, and they tend to become noisier
as the pot wears out.
Mc Leod Gauge
Kundsen Gauge
Viscosity Gauge
Thermocouple
Gauge
Pirani Gauge