4.
DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS
4.1 Introduction
When a beam is loaded, the initially straight longitudinal axis is deformed in to a curve defined as the
elastic, or the deflection curve of the beam.
In numerous practical cases, beam requirements are described by a given load-carrying capacity and an
allowable value of deflection. This situation arises in building design, where there is usually an upper limit
on deflections because large deflections are associated with poor appearance and with too much flexibility
in the structure.
Differential Equations of the Deflection Curve
Consider the cantilever beam AB shown in the Fig. 4.1a below. The origin is taken at the fixed end,
with the positive x-axis directed to the right and the positive y-axis directed downward. Assume that the
loads act in the xy plane and therefore bending takes place in this plane. The deflection of the beam at
any point m1 at distance x from the origin is the translation (or displacement) of that point in the y
direction, measured from the x-axis to the deflection curve. For the axes we have selected, a downward
deflection is positive and an upward deflection is negative. When is expressed as a function of x, we
have the equation of the deflection curve.
The angle of rotation of the axis of the beam at any point m1 is the angle between the x-axis and the
tangent to the deflection curve (Fig.4.1b). This angle is positive when clockwise, provided the x and y
axes have the directions shown.
dX
dS
a
dX
d
ds
d
b
Fig 4.1 Deflection Curve Of The Beam.
Consider a second point m2, located on the deflection curve at small distance ds further along the curve
and at distance x+dx (measured parallel to the x axis) from the origin. The deflection at this point is +d;
also the angle of rotation is +d. At points m1 and m2 construct lines normal to the deflection curve. The
intersection of these normals locates the center of curvature o’, and the distance from o’ to the curve is the
radius of curvature . From the figure, d = ds; hence the curvature is given by the equation:
(4-1)
1
The slope of the deflection curve is the first derivative d/dx. From fig 1.1b the slope is equal to the
tangent of the angle of rotation ; thus
(4-2)
Equations (4-1) and (4-2) are based only up on geometric considerations and apply to a beam of any
material. Furthermore there is no restriction on the magnitudes of the slopes and deflections.
Most beams undergo only very small rotations when they are loaded, resulting in very flat deflection
curves with extremely very small curvatures. From this it can be seen that ds dx.
Therefore Eqn. (4-1) becomes
(4-3)
Since for very small angle, , tan , Eqn. (7-2) can be approximated as follows:
(a)
Thus, for small rotation of the beam, the angle of rotation and the slope may be assumed to be equal.
(Note that the angle of rotation is measured in radians.)Taking the derivative of with respect to x,
(b)
From Eqn. (b) and Eqn. (7-3), we obtain
(4-4)
This equation is valid for a beam of any material, provided the rotations are very small.
If the material of the beam is linearly elastic and follows Hooke’s law, the curvature is:
(4-5)
Where M is the bending moment and EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam. Note that Eqn. (4-5) is valid
for large as well as small rotations. Combining Eqns. (4-4) and (4-5) yields the basic differential equation
of the deflection of linearly elastic beams obeying Hooke’s law due to pure bending moment only. Which
is
(4-6)
Eqn. (7-6) is known as the basic differential equation of the deflection curve of a beam or the Bernoulli-
Euler law of the technical bending theory. This equation can be integrated in each particular case to find
the angle of rotation or the deflection , provided the bending moment M is known.
In summery, the sign conventions to be used with Eqn. (4-6) are as follows:
1) the x and y axes are positive to the right and downward, respectively;
2) the angle of rotation is positive when clockwise from the x axis;
3) the deflection is positive downward;
4) the bending moment M is positive when it produces compression in the upper part of the beam;
5) the curvature is positive when the beam is bent concave downward; if the sign convention for M is
reversed, or if the y axis (and hence ) is taken positive upward, then the minus sign in Eqn. (4-6)
should be changed to a plus sign. If both M and y are reversed in sign, the equation is unchanged.
By differentiating Eqn. (4-6) with respect to x and then substituting the equations
q = - dV/dx and V = dM/dx, we can obtain:
(4-7)
(4-8)
2
Where V is the shear force and q is the intensity of distributed load.
4.2. Direct Integration Method
The equation of the deflection curve in terms of the bending moment (Eqn. 4-6) may be integrated to
obtain the deflection as a function of x. Since the differential equation is of second order, two
integrations are required. The first step is to write the equations for the bending moment. If there are
abrupt changes in loading or EI as we move along the axis of the beam, there will be separate moment
expressions for each region of the beam between the points at which such changes occur. For each of these
regions, we substitute the expressions for M into the differential equation. Then the`` equation is
integrated to obtain the slope ’, and a constant of integration is introduced by this process. A second
integration gives the deflection, and another integration constant is introduced. Thus there are two
constants of integration for each region of the beam. These constants can be evaluated from boundary
conditions pertaining to and’ at the supports of the beam and from continuity conditions on and’ at
the points where the regions of integration meet. The later require that both the slope and deflection be the
same at any junction of two parts of a beam; the elastic curve must be smooth. Then the evaluated
constants can be substituted back into the expressions for, thus finally yielding the final equations of the
deflection curve. This method for finding deflections is sometimes called the method of successive
integrations.
4.3 Moment-Area Method
In numerous engineering applications where deflections of beams must be determined, the loading is
complex, and the cross-sectional areas of the beam vary. By interpreting semi graphically the
mathematical operations of solving the governing differential equation, an effective procedure for
obtaining deflections in complicated situations has been developed. This method is called the moment area
method.
The moment-area method is generally suitable when the deflection or angle of rotation at only one point of
the beam is desired. It may be used to determine the equation of the elastic curve, but no advantage is
gained in comparison with the direct integration method.
The method of moment areas is just an alternative method for solving the deflection problem. It possesses
the same approximations and limitations as in the direct integration method (applies only to linearly elastic
beams.).
Moment-Area Theorems
The necessary theorems are based on the geometry of the elastic curve and the associated M/EI diagram.
For deriving the theorems, Eqn. 4-6, , can be rewritten in the following alternative forms:
or (4-9)
From Fig.-4(a), the quantity (M/EI)dx corresponds to an infinitesimal area of the M/EI diagram.
According to Eqn. 4-9, this area is equal to the change in angle between two adjoining tangents. The
contribution of an angle change in one element to the deformation of the elastic curve is shown in Fig.4-
2(b).
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M/EI M/EIdX dX X
B' X
m1 B
m2 d d
X d
B
dX
b
A
Fig.4.2 Moment Area Method
If the small angle change d for an element is multiplied by a distance x from an arbitrary origin to the
same element, a vertical distance d∆ is obtained; see Fig.4-2(b). as only small deflections are considered,
no distinction between arc BB’ and the vertical distance ∆BA need be made. Based on this geometrical
reasoning, one has
(4-10)
Formally integrating Eqns. (4-9) and (4-10) between any two points such as A and B on a beam (see Fig.
8-3), yields the two moment area theorems. The first moment area theorem is
= - [area of M/EI diagram between A and B] (4-11)
Where BA is the angle change between B and A.
First moment-area theorem: The angle BA between the tangents to the deflection curve at two points A
and B is equal to the negative of the area of the M/EI diagram between those points.
If slope A of the elastic curve at A is known, slope B at B is given as
(4-12)
The sign conventions used with this theorem are summarized as follows:
1) The relative angle BA between the tangents is positive when the angle B is algebraically larger than
the angle A,
2) The bending moment M is positive when it produces compression in the upper part of the beam.
3) The area of the M/EI diagram is given a positive or negative sign according to whether the bending
moment is positive or negative. If part of the bending moment diagram is positive and part is negative,
and then the corresponding parts of the M/EI diagram are given those same signs.
O X
a
A B'
m1 ds C' ba
m2 d p1
d ba
Y p2
d
B b
M/EI
C _
x
dX X1
Fig 4-3 Moment Area method
The quantity d∆ in Fig 4-3 is due to the effect of the curvature of an element. By summing this effect for
all elements from A to B, vertical distance ∆BA is obtained.
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Geometrically, this distance represents the displacement or deviation of point B from a tangent to the
elastic curve at A. This will be termed as the vertical offset of point B from the tangent at A. The forgoing,
in mathematical form, gives the second moment-area theorem:
(4-13)
= - [first moment of the area of the M/EI diagram between A and B,
taken with respect to B]
Second Moment Area-Theorem: the offset ∆BA of point B from the tangent at A is equal to the negative
of the first moment of the area of the M/EI diagrams between A and B, taken with respect to B.
Note that the offset ∆BA is positive in the y direction. If, as we move from A to B in the x direction, the
area of the M/EI diagram is negative, then the first moment is also negative and the offset is positive,
which means that point B is below the tangent at A.
The first moment of the area of the M/EI diagram can be obtained by taking the product of the area of the
diagram and the distance from point B to the centroid C of the area (Fig.4-3)
4.4Conjugate-Beam Method
Essentially, the conjugate beam method requires the same amount of computations as the moment-area
theorems to determine a beam’s slope or deflection; however, this method relies on the principles of
statics, and the application will be more familiar. The basis of the method comes from the similarity of the
following known equations.
Or integrating,
and
and
Here the shear compares with the slope , the moment M compares with the displacement , and the
external load q compares with the M/EI diagram. To make use of this comparison we will now consider a
beam having the same length as the real beam, but referred to here as the ‘conjugate beam,’ Fig.7-4. The
conjugate beam is ‘loaded’ with the M/EI diagram derived from the load q on the real beam. From the
above comparisons, we can state two theorems related to the conjugate beam, namely,
Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the corresponding
point in the conjugate beam.
Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the moment at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
q M/EI
A B
Real Beam Conjugate beam
Fig.4-4 Conjugate Beam Method
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Conjugate-Beam Supports: -when drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the shear and moment
developed at the supports of the conjugate beam account for the corresponding slope and displacement of
the real beam at its supports, a consequence of theorem 1 and 2. For example, as shown in the table below,
a pin or roller support at the end of the real beam provides zero displacements, but the beam has a none
zero slope. Consequently, from theorems 1 and 2, the conjugate beam must be supported by a pin or a
roller, since this support has zero moment but has a shear or end reaction.
Supports in real and conjugate beams
Real beam Conjugate beam
Free end of cantilever Fixed end
Simple support at end Simple support at end
Fixed support Free end
Continuous intermediate support Internal hinge
Internal hinge Continuous internal support
NOTE:- The conjugate beam is loaded with M/EI diagram on the real beam. This loading will be directed
down ward if the M/EI diagram is positive and it will be directed up ward if the M/EI is negative.