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Chapter

The Heritage Destruction

of Manila: Cultivating a
Heritage-Driven Economy for the
City of Manila
Geoffrey Rhoel C. Cruz

Abstract

Over the years, cities across the world have experienced unprecedented growth
and development, imposing greater demands on states and cities alike, resulting in
the unsustainable use of finite resources. Such growth has been associated with high
levels of environmental damage and social dislocation; hence affecting cities’ com-
petitiveness, efficiency and livability, and overall sustainability. The City of Manila,
Philippines, is not an exception. The tension between heritage and development stems
from a lack of awareness on the part of the stakeholders. For most, cultural heritage,
tangible or intangible, is just an ordinary concept that nostalgic people still adhere to.
Others see heritage as a hindrance to development, as the old dichotomy of heritage
and development provides such that the usual practice is for cultural heritage to give
way to the principles of development, leading to the destruction of built cultural
heritage. This chapter presents how heritage can work side-by-side with development,
with culture and heritage serving as an integral part of the city’s economic backbone.
A heritage-driven economy framework can be an effective means to promote a cre-
ative economy that can generate employment opportunities and improve the existing
economic conditions of the city.

Keywords: heritage conservation, heritage-driven economy, cultural heritage,

heritage tourism, heritage destruction, sustainable city

1. Introduction

Over the years, cities across the world have experienced unprecedented growth
and development, imposing greater demands on states and cities alike, resulting in
the unsustainable use of finite resources. Such growth has been associated with high
levels of environmental damage and social dislocation; hence affecting cities’ compet-
itiveness, efficiency and livability, and overall sustainability. Accordingly, sustainable
cities are places that are planned and managed in consideration of the three pillars of
sustainability namely: social, economic, and environmental impact, without compro-
mising the ability of future generations to experience the same [1].
1
Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

In the Philippines, Manila serves as the city center comprised of 897 barangays
grouped in 100 zones and 16 administrative districts and clustered into six congres-
sional districts [2]. The city was founded by the Spanish Governor General Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi on June 24, 1571, after befriending the early leaders of the town in
a historical feat. In 1574, King Philip II of Spain granted Manila the title “Noble and
Ever Loyal City,” thus fortifying Manila as the seat and power of the Spanish forces
in the Spanish East Indies which includes the Philippines, Palau, Guam, and the
Marianas. It was declared as the first chartered City in the Philippines in 1901 and was
vested with an autonomy status in 1949.
Every city has a story to tell and the City of Manila is no exception. Being one of
the oldest cities in the world established in 1571, Manila was able to compile numer-
ous stories that eventually comprised and composed the city’s character, nature,
and soul. Carmen Guerrero Nakpil once described Manila’s colonial experience as
like staying for 300 years in a convent and 50 years in Hollywood, and we can even
add 3 years of eating sushi and 50 years of “his and hers” to account for the five
decades of Manila’s post-colonial experience, making Manila and Philippines as
everybody’s colony. Moreover, Manila was noted to have around 100,000 inhabit-
ants comprised of Spaniards, mestizos, native-born Filipinos, Chinese, Armenians,
English, French, and other nationalities. De Zuñiga [3] even considered that there
are hardly any type of people in the world who would not have some individual
representatives in Manila [4].
During the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, Manila was commensurate to
Intramuros, one of its popular districts today. The Intramuros was established to serve
as a political and military base for the Spaniards in Asia due to its strategic location
between Manila Bay and the Pasig River. Intramuros followed the traditional town-
plaza community set up commonly practiced during the Spanish colonization, and
it has been the hub of the famous galleon trade as well. It was established to house
Spanish officials and delegates including their families, the reason for it to be desig-
nated as a Spanish-only zone. Such explains the reason for the six-meter-high walls
three kilometers in length that cover 160 hectares area, which were fortified with
cannons and moats to protect it from possible invasions. The entry and exit points
were controlled through seven fortified gates and drawbridges that kept the Spanish
hospital, government offices, churches and schools, military barracks, and residences
of the Spaniards safe and secluded. Only horse-drawn carts can pass through the
drawbridges leading to the numerous gates of the compound during that time, as
defensive features surrounded the thick walls hence standing by its name of “city
within the walls.” Locals had to walk on foot, which was most of the time barefooted.
Moreover, non-Spaniards such as the Chinese and Filipinos had to settle at the
outskirts of Intramuros in the districts of San Miguel, Sta. Ana and Binondo are
known as extramuros or outside the walls. Those who are working in Intramuros by the
day would have to leave by the night before the gate closes.
Certainly, Manila has a very rich story to tell. Dr. Eric Zerrudo of the University
of Santo Tomas Center for Conservation of Cultural Property and Environment in
the Tropics (UST CCCPET) in an interview with the researcher stated that “pag may
kwento, may kwenta; pag may kwenta, may kita” (personal communication, 7 May
2021). Such applies perfectly to the case of the City of Manila. Heritage advocate
Mr. Ivan Man Dy (personal communication, 10 May 2021) of Old Manila Walks, a
popular heritage advocate and ICOMOS Philippines member, even tagged Manila as
the historic capital of the Philippines, having the longest tenure of being the coun-
try’s capital and comprising about 80% of Philippine tourism guidebooks. Dy even
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The Heritage Destruction of Manila: Cultivating a Heritage-Driven Economy for the City…
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branded Manila as the heart and soul of the country being the common entry and exit
points for arriving and departing tourists which coincides with the pronouncements
of USTCCCPET Director Dr. Zerrudo (personal communication, 7 May 2021) and
tour operator Mr. Dustin Ancheta (personal communication, 18 May 2021) of the
Manila for a Day tour group. Mr. Mark Evidente (personal communication, 4 August
2021), a heritage advocate, lawyer, and environmental planner, reiterated that Manila
is indeed a basket of historical wealth.
Nevertheless, Manila has been the home of many firsts in the Philippines such as
the first schools/universities, hospitals, government offices, financial institutions
and banks, lighthouse towers, hotels, train systems, and other many indications of
urban living. But in the aftermath of colonization and after a series of battles and
wars, the district lost its original value and significance. The fortifications suffered
heavily during the liberation wars from various foreign colonizers, in addition to
natural catastrophes of fire, earthquake, and typhoons that gave the city a true test of
time. Gradually, the city began to lose its competitive edge as adjacent cities started to
initiate development initiatives on their own to lure former constituents of Manila to
relocate to more profitable, livable, and environmentally sound neighborhood cities
thus leaving the City of Manila lagging. Most businesses found it practical to move to
different business hubs rather than reconstruct or establish their business after it was
destroyed by the war, in addition to the decreasing quality of life in the area.
Indeed, Manila underwent the accelerated process of development as the prin-
ciple of modernization, which adheres to the linear path of development involving
a transition to industrialization from a generally agricultural industry through the
spread of market relations and the process of technical diffusion [5], has taken its toll
over the city. As the city moved toward urban development, it was accompanied by a
high demand for structural improvements such as skyscraper buildings and modern
facilities. Demands for additional social infrastructures such as housing facilities and
commercial complexes were on the rise as well to complement the rapid increase in
urban population. Most often, with poor urban planning and the absence of zoning
regulations, actions to such demands were at the expense of heritage conservation.
Besides, the scarcity of available spaces has led to the displacement of built heritage
structures of historical parks and monuments and even ancestral houses. Skyscrapers
of shopping malls, theme parks, residential condominiums, and commercial cen-
ters that physically or visually impair the original build and design of such cultural
treasures, serve as their usual substitutes. Such has affected the overall sustainability
of the City of Manila.
In 2022, Arcadis Design and Consultancy (Arcadis), a global company dedicated
to improving the quality of life published the results of the 3rd Sustainable Cities
Index (SCI). The index explores the citizen perspective of city sustainability pat-
terned after the beliefs of Arcadis global cities director, John Batten, suggesting that
“cities are powerful engines that bring people together and allow for resource sharing
to meet collective needs.” Such has been the mantra of the company as inspired by the
three pillars of the Sustainable Development Goals.
In 2015, “leaving no one behind” became a popular motto as the United Nations
(UN) adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 17 goals and 169 targets.
The SDGs were an offshoot of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which
drew flak for being not ambitious enough as manifested in the absence of the interre-
latedness of the development objectives as they were usually presented as stand-alone
objectives as shortcomings were observed on Goal 8 in particular, which stipulates the
need to “develop a global partnership for development.” With the new set of global
3
Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

goals identified in the SDGs, it envisions a holistic approach to achieving sustainable

development for all.
The SDGs were anchored on the principle of sustainability as defined by the
Brundtland Report [6] as “a process aimed at achieving environmental and social
improvement, both locally and globally, or a state that can be maintained at a certain level
indefinitely.” Since then, sustainability has been considered as “meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
The 17 SDGs call for a framework patterned on three interdependent aspects:
(1) environmental protection; (2) economic growth; and (3) social development.
Holmberg and Tickell [7] extensively discussed that a sustainable environmental
system is necessary in which renewable resources are given primacy and avoid exploi-
tation and over-use of non-renewable resources. Moreover, a sustainable economic
system is also important in which safeguards are effectively installed that guarantee
the continuous production of goods and resources while providing an inclusive
development for all that ensures the equal provision of adequate social services.
In relation to the SDGs, Arcadis measured the sustainability of cities using three
indices patterned after the three pillars of the SDGs categorized as people, planet,
and profit as shown in Figure 1. The three indices are connected to the SDG commit-
ments of the United Nations covering the aspects of “health and well-being; water
and sanitation; industry, innovation and infrastructure; inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable cities; climate change impacts; life on land; and partnership.”
In the latest SCI, the Norwegian City of Oslo tops the overall list. However, the
City of Manila in the Philippines was ranked 93rd overall out of 100 countries sur-
veyed, two notches better than its 2018 performance. The City of Manila was indexed
at 97th for people (93rd in 2018), 83rd for the planet (91st in 2018), and 89th (98th in
2018) under the profit category. As a UN member country, the Philippines continu-
ously manifests its commitment to achieving the targets set by the SGDs. However,
most of the country’s action plans were focused on empowering people and ensuring
inclusiveness and equality as reported in the Philippines’ Second Voluntary National
Review [8]. Lesser attention was given to inclusive economic and social development,
a major issue for most least-developed countries, particularly in Asia.
As developing countries follow the linear pattern of development, modernization
has likewise contributed to the development of urban decay thus compromising cul-
tural heritage. As such, Target 11.4 of the SDGs specifically calls for its protection and

Figure 1.
The three pillars of the sustainable cities index. Source: Arcadis [1].

4
The Heritage Destruction of Manila: Cultivating a Heritage-Driven Economy for the City…
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preservation hereby making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient,
and sustainable
Target 11.4

“Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural
heritage.”

National government

Name of organization Methodology Key informant

1. Intramuros Administration Zoom Online Mr. John “Rancho”

Interview Arcilla

2. Department of Tourism Survey Ms. Catherine C.

Questionnaire Agustin

3. National Commission for Culture and the Arts Survey Mr. Lawrence Charles E.
Questionnaire Salazar

4. National Historical Commission of the Philippines Zoom Online Arch. Ma. Luisa Valerio
Interview

Local government

5. City of Manila, Department of Tourism, Culture and Zoom Online Mr. Ronald Flores
Arts of Manila Interview

Non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations, heritage advocates

6. Heritage Conservation Society Zoom Online Mr. Gio Abcede

Interview

7. HUB Make Lab Survey Mr. Roberto Sylianteng

Questionnaire

8. UST Center for Conservation of Cultural Property and Zoom Online Dr. Eric Zerrudo
Environment in the Tropics Interview
9. Santa Ana Heritage Tours Zoom Online Mr. Boyet Magale
Interview

10. ICOMOS International Zoom Online Dr. Ivan Anthony S.

Interview Henares

11. Ateneo De Manila University, Institute of Philippine Zoom Online Dr. Fernando Nakpil
Culture Interview Zialcita

12. Old Manila Walks Zoom Online Mr. Ivan Man Dy

Interview

13. San Sebastian Basilica Conservation and Development Zoom Online Ms. Marianne Claire
Foundation, Inc. Interview Vitug

Private organizations and business groups

14. Philippine Postal Heritage Walking Tour Survey Mr. Lawrence Chan
Questionnaire

15. Meaningful Travels Zoom Online Mr. Jerome Carolino

Interview

16. Manila for a Day Zoom Online Mr. Dustin Ancheta

Interview

Table 1.
List of key informant interviews [13–15].

5
Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

Like Ebbe [9], Joan Henderson [10] foretells serious environmental and social
problems of urban development brought by the undying ambition of cities to be
international financial hubs and business centers. Hence any semblance of the
reluctant past is deemed as a manifestation of unproductivity and underutilization of
scarce resources and thus needs to be removed to advance forward. Francesca Nocca
[11] cited that the continuous pattern of build and destroy appears incompatible
with the principles of sustainable development “as progress in one area can produce
negative implications to another,” as resources are finite and tend to be consumed at
the expense of future generations and have significant “environmental, economic
and social well-being” implications. Thus, Katrinka Ebbe [9] has deemed rapid urban
expansion as a significant risk to such irreplaceable cultural resources. In fact, accord-
ing to the United Nations, global threats to cultural heritage increased notably in the
last 20 years [12].
This chapter provides a descriptive analysis of cultural heritage destruction in the
City of Manila, Philippines. Through a semi-structured online key informant inter-
view, this chapter presents a qualitative study on how a heritage-driven economy can
alter the existing political landscape in the City of Manila in terms of cultural heritage
conservation.
Table 1 summarizes the list of key informant interviews.
After the key stakeholders were identified and the key informant interview
process was completed, stakeholders’ objectives and interests were extracted from
the data that set their respective focus. The chapter looked into the stakeholders
using a stakeholder analysis to find out if there is a power struggle among them. The
chapter likewise assessed the stakeholders’ possible areas of motivation to reflect
their respective expectations. Moreover, a stakeholder attribute identification was
also conducted based on the interviews and available secondary data as guided by the
principles of stakeholders’ engagement by Wang et al. [16] and Góral [17] in assessing
the participation level of each stakeholder in the formulation of an effective cultural
heritage-based tourism program for the City of Manila.
A comparative analysis of the collected responses was done to categorize the
perspectives of the different stakeholders and identify the possible source of the
perceived tension between cultural heritage conservation and tourism development.
Moreover, the chapter’s findings and recommendations were based on the opinions
provided by the respondents, speaking mostly in their capacity and not on behalf of
the organization that they represent.

2. The heritage destruction of Manila

The City of Manila is no stranger to urban decay. Numerous ancestral houses and
heritage sites were converted to high-rise commercial complexes, while some ended
up being adapted as local warehouses. There are also cases of heritage structures
abruptly being demolished if not left out to deteriorate. The Metropolitan Theater
(MET) in Manila is a classic working example, used to serve as a hub for international
performances but was suddenly abandoned until the National Commission for the
Culture and Arts (NCCA) decided to acquire it in 2015 for rehabilitation. The same
is the case of the Rizal Monument in Luneta, Manila when it became controversial
in 2014 following the construction of a 46-story residential building blighting the
sightline of the monument of the Philippine national hero. The pre-World War II
structure of the Rizal Memorial Sports Complex was almost demolished in 2018 to
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The Heritage Destruction of Manila: Cultivating a Heritage-Driven Economy for the City…
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be converted to a mixed-use commercial establishment after a business conglomer-

ate offered to refurbish the complex. The Sta. Cruz Building built in 1948 in Escolta,
Manila likewise was almost demolished in June 2019 if not for the saving grace done
by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) in issuing a cease-
and-desist order to stop its demolition.
However, the famed Angela Apartments in Malate, Manila, the Admiral Hotel in
Roxas Boulevard, Manila, the Philippine Free Press building in Quiapo, Manila, the
Jai Alai building in Taft Avenue, Manila, the Philbanking Building near the Anda
Circle, Port Area Manila, the Avenue Theater in Avenida, Manila, the Carlos Palanca
Mansion in Taft Avenue, Manila, the old Meralco Head Office in San Marcelino,
Manila, and the Yuchengco House in San Nicolas, Manila were all gone in what was
tagged as the Heritage Rape in Manila.
Heritage buildings in Calle de la Escolta, in the City of Manila, were likewise
deemed as casualties of heritage destruction. Heritage architectures in the area were
being demolished one after another to be reconstructed as modern edifices to serve
new functions and purposes. To begin with, the 1914-dated structure of the El Hogar
Filipino Building was acquired by a group of Filipino-Chinese real estate developers
who intend to demolish the structure to reconstruct as a modern condominium. The
old 1962 Philippine National Bank Building (PNB) was the next to follow when the
local government of Manila ordered its demolition in 2016 after being deemed as
unsafe following a fire incident in 2015. Another casualty is the old Capitol Theater
which commenced with the demolition in 2018 to give way to a high-rise structure
while maintaining the façade of the old structure. The latest casualty is the Sanchez
House on Bilibid Viejo Street in Quiapo, Manila, a presumed ancestral house of over
50 years of age, which was given a demolition permit by the City of Manila in 2019.
In 2021, the recently proposed Pasig River Expressway has threatened the stability of
numerous heritage sites along its corridor, in addition to the ecological threats to the
Pasig River hence affecting its sustainability.
A list enumerating the reported cultural heritage casualties over the last four
administrations of the City of Manila shows that most of the heritage destructions
took place during the administration of former Mayor Joseph Estrada (2013–2019)
were 15 out of 19 built cultural heritage sites were either reportedly demolished in full
or partially. Second to the list was former Mayor Lito Atienza (1998–2007) with three
reported heritage casualties during his stint. Nevertheless, the study was not able
to track any reported built cultural heritage destruction during the term of former
Mayor Alfredo Lim (2007–2013), while the administration of Mayor Isko Moreno
(2019–2022) has one reported built cultural heritage casualty. So far, none has been
recorded for the current administration of Mayor Maria “Honey” Lacuna.
Table 2 summarizes the findings.
Among the mentioned heritage casualties, the demolition of the Jai Alai building
became the triggering point for cultural heritage activism to gain ground resulting in
the passage of the National Cultural Heritage Act in 2009. The controversy stemmed
from the executive order issued by the then-local chief executive, Lito Atienza, in
2000 to demolish the Jai Alai building to give way to the construction of the new Hall
of Justice of the City of Manila. Furthermore, the mayor also pronounced that the
building is a mere reflection of a gambling culture and thus should be removed, with-
out consideration of its cultural heritage value. Nevertheless, the construction did not
push through as there were reports that the new Hall of Justice would be constructed
at the present location of the old GSIS building near the Manila City Hall instead
which is another structure with presumed cultural heritage importance.
7
Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

Built cultural heritage Est. year of demolition/destruction Administration

Admiral Hotel 2014 Estrada

American Chamber of Commerce (Lusco Building) 2017 Estrada

Angela Apartments 2019 Estrada

Avenue Theater 2006 Atienza

Carlos Palanca Mansion 2016 Estrada

Hospicio de San Jose Accessoria 2017 Estrada

Jai Alai Building 2000 Atienza

Life Theater (Villonco Building) 2018 Estrada

Old Capitol Theater 2018 Estrada

Old Meralco Head Office 2013 Estrada

Old PNB Building in Escolta 2016 Estrada

Philbanking Building 2018 Estrada

Philippine Free Press Building 2019 Estrada

Philippine Su Kuang Institute 2017 Estrada

Sanchez House 2019 Moreno

Sta. Cruz Building in Escolta 2019 Estrada

Uy Su Bin Building 2019 Estrada

Yuchengco House 2017 Estrada

Table 2.
List of built cultural heritage casualties over the last five administrations of the city of Manila.

The changing cultural perspectives of the different local government administrations

of the City of Manila is a reflection of the leadership priorities given consideration by the
elected local chief executive. Former Mayor Lito Atienza was known for his urban devel-
opment governance principles originating from his beautification programs for the City
of Manila. When former Mayor Alfredo Lim took office, the mayor shifted to law and
order as his top concern. Afterward, former Mayor Joseph Estrada adopted a “champion
of the poor” stance of governance with the promise of providing employment opportu-
nities to the residents of the city while addressing the financial deficit left by the former
administration. Then, Mayor Isko Moreno promised to raise the bar of governance in the
City of Manila by promising an overall improved quality of life to the residents of Manila
through social amelioration programs that offer a combination of pension for senior
citizens, student allowance, and nutrition assistance for children in an attempt to combat
poverty. Lastly, current Mayor Maria Sheilah “Honey” Lacuna capitalizes on the health
and welfare of the people initiatives as the focal point of her governance. However,
among the five local chief executives, it was only Mayor Isko Moreno who was vocal
about his plans involving cultural heritage conservation.

3. The heritage and tourism hubs of Manila

To save what is left of the rich heritage of Manila, a sustainable pattern of produc-
tion and consumption needs to be considered. Nocca [11] recommended that the
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principles of the circular economy be adapted instead to achieving sustainable devel-

opment in which “negative impacts are minimized while producing environmental,
economic, and socio-cultural benefits.” Instead of pushing for the generation of new
resources and structures, the relationship between conservation and sustainability
needs to be explored. It was also mentioned by Nocca that, “culture serves as a key
element in the humanization of cities and human settlements,” such that “the role of
cultural heritage in developing vibrant, sustainable and inclusive economies, and in
sustaining and supporting urban economies to progressive transition toward higher
productivity” has been acknowledged to a great extent hence emphasizing the need
for cultural heritage preservation.
Considering such historic-cultural wealth, the local government of Manila initi-
ated the Manila Tourism and Cultural Development Plan 2020–2025 which envisions
the city to become a “world-class capital city of rich heritage, distinct character and
diverse Huns of knowledge with its capable and committed people putting God first
in forging partnerships to harness these urban assets for green, resilient, inclusive,
smart and sustainable development, linking the nation to the world and inspiring
the hopes of the Filipino people.” The development plan was anchored on capacity-
building and infrastructure programs based on “what do you have, where do you want
to go, what do you do?.”
The plan identified eight tourism hubs with distinct characters, each comprised of
two district groups based on proximity and homogeneity accommodating all sixteen
districts of the City of Manila.

3.1 Intramuros and port area

Manila’s cultural heritage is bannered by the district of Intramuros which is

maintained and supervised by the Intramuros Administration, serving as the prime
agency of the national government that deals with matters involving Intramuros. It
handles most of the affairs in the area composed of five barangays with an estimated
population of 8000 residents.
Intramuros once served as the capital of the Spanish occupation during the
sixteenth century. It was originally built to serve as the residence of Spanish govern-
ment officials and their families. It was once where the most influential, prominent,
and wealthy citizens of Manila lived such that Chinese and Indios (Filipino natives)
were not allowed to stay inside Intramuros permanently, which was designated as a
Spanish elite and Spanish Mestizos-only zone. It has been the heart and soul of the
City of Manila, but in the aftermath of colonization and after a series of battles and
wars, the district lost its original value and significance. Nevertheless, it is the reason
why the more the district deserves to be conserved and promoted such that it contains
“bittersweet memories of the colonial past, a heritage deemed worth preserving and
conserving for the future generations” [18].
Intramuros’ heritage is mostly a resemblance of the Spanish way of life and archi-
tecture with Intramuros being branded as Spaniard only zone, therefore, housing
pertinent Spanish structures and architectures like churches, government buildings,
plazas, schools, and houses of Spaniards usually made from bricks and woods.
The district boasts the collection of its remaining Spanish antillian houses or
bahay na bato, as well as what remains from the original seven churches that were
constructed by different religious orders during the Spanish reign in the region such
as the Manila Cathedral and the San Agustin Church together with the schools that
they administer. Presently, most of these Catholic schools either moved out of the
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

confines of the walls of Intramuros or were destroyed by the heavy bombings during
World War II.
At present, it has been inhabited mostly by urban dwellers living in shanties and
shacks standing side-by-side with numerous commercial complexes and several
government offices. With minimal formal residential communities, most of the
people in the area can are active during daylight as Intramuros houses the Intramuros
Consortium of four higher education institutions that includes Colegio de San Juan de
Letran, Lyceum of the Philippines, Mapua University, and the Pamantasan ng Lungsod
ng Maynila, therefore only a few students are living in the area and most were leaving
during night time. Thus, what used to be a “No Indio Zone” of 64 hectares compound
with 4.5 m of graying stonewalls became almost a ghost town at night and had
become the sanctuary of informal settlers thus compromising the area’s sustainability.
Moreover, Intramuros’ regulated urban land use has provided the area with
numerous open spaces and public parks which presently serve as its prime attractions
which include Fort Santiago, Casa Manila, and Baluarte de San Diego. Such attrac-
tions contribute to revenues generated by other Museums located inside Intramuros
like the Museo de Intramuros, Bonsai Library and Museum, Light and Sound
Museum, the Bahay Tsinoy, San Agustin Museum, Silahis Center and the Destileria
Limtuaco Museum. Aside from Museums, open space venues for meetings, events,
and conferences are added attractions that can be found inside Intramuros.
Recent developments in Intramuros focus on trying to rehabilitate the area by
luring back commercial activities just like the old times. It has been dubbed “Manila’s
next creative hub.” The Intramuros Administration along with the Creative Economy
Council of the Philippines hopes to rehabilitate the walls of Intramuros one wall
at a time, tagging it “Bring the Walls Down.” The first to undergo an urban facelift
is the Maestranza Wall which is being converted into a modern creative hub called
“Maestranza Creative Quarter.” The area served as the location for the infamous “gal-
leon trade” during the Spanish trading heydays. The modern hub follows the concept
of adaptive reuse and is designed to house 44 chambers to be used for artist studios,
exhibition halls, incubation spaces, and workshop areas [18].
More than that, the old customs house in Intramuros is one step closer to revival
as plans to reconstruct the abandoned Aduana have received support from the local
government and the Department of Public Works and Highways. The Aduana, also
known as the Intendencia, is being eyed as the new home of the National Archives of
the Philippines after its former location in Binondo was hit by fire in 2018.
Likewise, the reconstruction of the old San Ignacio Church in Intramuros was
finally finished and was opened to the public last May 2019. The original San Ignacio
Church was heavily damaged during the Battle of Manila in 1945 after it was left
burning for four days thus leaving it abandoned for almost four decades as the local
community turned the space into a community basketball court. The old church is
now the house of Museo de Intramuros which houses about 500 religious artifacts
found in old churches within the area [19].

3.2 Binondo-San Nicolas Chinatown

Apart from Intramuros, Manila’s heritage tourism also consists of the district
Binondo. During Manila’s heyday, no one can speak of trading without mentioning
the district of Binondo for it served as the country’s trading port during the popular-
ity of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade which linked four continents including
Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Europe. During that time, Manila served as the
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gateway to Asia as it controlled items coming to Asia for export to Europe and vice-
versa which included but was not limited to silk, porcelain, embroideries, linen, and
textiles from India, stones and pieces of jewelry from China, spices from Moluccas,
even carpets from Persia, thus making Manila as the foremost city of the Eastern
Indies [4, 20]. More than that, Manila was even considered the world’s first global city
(Irving in [4]).
With Intramuros being an exclusive zone for Spaniards but still recognizing the
significance of the Chinese merchants particularly in the Galleon Trade, the Chinese
traders and merchants were housed in an area just outside Intramuros called Parian
de Arroceros which form part of the district of Binondo today accessible through one
of the Intramuros’ gates. From being a simple Chinese settlement, it grew to become
the commercial center of Manila. After being consistently relocated it found its final
home in Binondo which is known today as Chinatown after serving as the business
district of Manila due to its proximity to Intramuros and the Pasig River which then
was the primary highway.
The district of Binondo is known today as the oldest Chinatown in the world, a
popular haven for Chinese cuisine and merchandise as local Chinese traders decided
to settle in the area permanently. As a Chinese community, Chinese Buddhist temples
are also among the attractions in the area apart from family clan temples that are
mostly situated on the top floor of the buildings. Binondo is also the home of the
Minor Basilica of San Lorenzo Ruiz which was built in 1596 to serve the spiritual
needs of the Filipino-Chinese or tsinoys in the area. The church was destroyed during
World War II but was then reconstructed maintaining the façade and the original
belfry. The Insular Life Building constructed in 1930 is among the listed heritage
buildings in the area.
The Spaniards first established the district in 1594 to facilitate the conversion of
Chinese immigrants to the Catholic faith as the area was close to the capital of the city,
which was the center of the Catholic faith during the Spanish time. Aside from the
presence of the Chinese community, Binondo was known for a lot of firsts for the City
of Manila such as the first department store, theaters, and pharmacy. It is also among
the train stops of the main mode of transportation in Manila, the tranvia.
Different nationalities opened their offices and shops in Binondo which became
the preferred place of work and home address of almost everyone. Binondo became
the central business district of Manila housing a large number of banks, private
companies, and commercial complexes. Moreover, Binondo’s glory days lasted until
the 1970s when industrialization called for sudden urbanization thus bringing with it
the various complexities of an urbanized town like traffic congestion and accessibility
issues to name a few that lured away most prime businesses together with the upper-
income residents that go with it to developing places like the Ayala Avenue of Makati
which was a former grassland and the Ortigas Center in Pasig.
Furthermore, what remains in Binondo are descendants of the original Chinese
ancestors that continue to run their small to medium enterprises enjoying the proxim-
ity to the South harbor as the primary channel for transporting goods for import and
export. Nevertheless, several old edifices used during the reign of Binondo as the
commercial capital of Manila still stand today, mostly buildings and ancestral houses
usually characterized by being along esteros connected to the Pasig River, however,
such structures were either abandoned or had smaller number of tenants with lower
rental rates, very far from its original glory.
Now, the Binondo China Town area is getting popular for its culinary heritage
which still showcases authentic Chinese recipes mixed with contemporary popular
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

Chinese dishes as it is among the common destinations of walking tours by food

enthusiasts (I. Dy, personal communication, 10 May 2021).
Adjacent to the district of Binondo is the district of San Nicolas, separated by the
Pasig River. If Binondo is a busy district for being the commercial district of Manila
during its prime days, San Nicolas is known for a being quiet and charming town
significant for the various roles it portrayed for the City of Manila more than being
just an accessory to the popular district of Binondo. Most of the residents in the area
were of Chinese descent prompted by the freedom given to them to move freely
outside the confines of the Parian or elsewhere within the archipelago. With the
newfound freedom, most Chinese merchants decided not to move far away from the
area and thus decided to settle in the nearby town of San Nicolas. Today, San Nicolas
boasts a wide collection of heritage houses: both stone, and wood and thatch houses
comparable to the heritage houses in Silay, Bacolod, and Vigan, Ilocos Sur. San Nicolas
offers what Intramuros does not have, namely authentic heritage houses [20]. As Dr.
Fernando Zialcita [4] recounts:

“excellent examples of Filipino urban house style of the nineteenth and early twenti-
eth centuries can be found in the district, most remain elegant and splendid, though in
a ruinous state.”

Apart from being the extension of the Filipino-Chinese community, San Nicolas
was also once an important industrial center as most foundries in Manila were
established in the area in addition to being the center of the scent-making industry as
represented by the scent-names born by various alleys and streets in the area [20].
San Nicolas also became the setting of the Galleon Trade; it became the holding
area of goods participating in the Galleon Trade pending customs clearance as the
first local customs house was constructed in San Nicolas as well as the first lighthouse
in the country which validates its proximity to the point of entry of the Pasig River.
More than that, San Nicolas played a significant role in the cultivation of
Philippine nationalism, branded as the cradle of the Philippine Revolution [4]. It is
in the area where Andres Bonifacio convened a meeting to establish a revolutionary
organization, the Katipunan, aspiring to overthrow the Spaniards through armed
struggle. Additionally, Katipunan’s publication, the Kalayaan, was drafted in one of
the houses present in San Nicolas.

3.3 Quiapo and San Miguel

Quiapo is one of the popular districts in Manila, known for its thrift shops and
bazaars selling almost everything on a bargain including traditional crafts and even
herbal medicines and other medicinal concoctions. Above all, what makes Quiapo
popular nowadays is due to it is the center of the devotion of two of the country’s pri-
mary religions, Christianity and Islam. It is where two different cultures and beliefs
meet. For the Catholics, Quiapo houses the Minor Basilica of the Black Nazarene
locally known as Señor Nazareno, at the same time it features the biggest mosque in
Manila, the Manila Golden Mosque and Cultural Center, for the Muslims. On top of
that, Quiapo showcases Japanese-related icons such as carp, turtles, and a dragon on a
separate street. But for Zialcita [21],

“Quiapo district in the City of Manila is more than the Nazarene and Quezon
Boulevard. It has excelled in painting, music, cooking and the arts. It harbors
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landmarks that are unique in the world. It also has neighborhoods in charming 1900s
settings.”

At one time, Quiapo was considered the center of the City of Manila for it is geo-
graphically located at the heart of the city. It is convenient accessibility to the City of
Manila’s government center, commerce and financial district, and religious pilgrimage
provided greater leverage for the people to stay in the area, in addition to the point
that modes of transportation present during that time were both by land and water
which provided greater value to properties lying beside the esteros (Figure 2).
As such, Quiapo has a good collection of old mansions and ancestral houses that
became the abode of prominent personalities and families of Philippine politics and
culture making it a higher-class residential district. In addition, colleges and universi-
ties were established in the area during the American era together with other social
and business establishments including cinema houses, theaters, and restaurants.
Nonetheless, Quiapo played a key part in the formation of Philippine national-
ism, historically and presently. Just like today, Quiapo has been a key site for political
actions and resistance movements, with Plaza Miranda as the center thus proclaiming
the area as a symbol of the Filipino’s political conscience [22]. The Bahay Nakpil-
Bautista was once the residence of a former member of La Liga Filipina and the
Katipunan.
However, social and economic changes brought obsolescence to the area. Since
major streets in the area are mostly narrow and suited only for light vehicular traf-
fic just like any old district in the world, the district failed to cope up with the rapid
increase in population. The increased demand for urban space for having an excel-
lent location for commercial and office buildings has been a real threat to Quiapo’s
heritage houses. This makes the destruction of heritage houses or conversion to
commercial complexes more attractive than its preservation, for the prior provides
bigger economic returns over a short time while the latter requires circular economic
development to generate attractive economic returns [23].
As the demands of modern-day lifestyle continue to mount pressure on the old
and already fixed infrastructures of Quiapo, the district gradually lost its competitive
edge over nearby districts and cities thus prompting commercial and financial centers

Figure 2.
The map of Quiapo, illustration by Roz Li of Quiapo history project. Available from: [Link]
com/114030176708539/photos/a.114038570041033/114038540041036/?type=3&theater.

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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

to move to the modern business districts of Ortigas and Makati that showcases better
urban planning. What was left in Quiapo nowadays are low-income retail establish-
ments as obsolescence resulted in gentrification as old residents started to move to
other parts of the city, although there are still few old residents staying in the area.
What attracts people today in Quiapo is the proliferation of thrift bargain shops,
eating places, and the presence of a devotional center as its greatest attraction. It has
been dubbed as the “obsolete residence of the upper class” [23].
Side-by-side with Quiapo is the district of San Miguel, known for its prestige and
class as it holds the seat and power of the country’s political administration and the
Malacañan Palace that serves as the house and office of the highest political person in
the country. As such, existing height and density restrictions are in place in the area
thus in effect preserving the heritage houses and structures. Likewise, the area’s visual
sightline is deemed safe as high-rise structures are prohibited from being constructed
within the vicinity for the safety and security purposes of the Malacañan Palace.
More than that, various government offices have taken the lead in practicing adaptive
reuse of such built heritage structures by having their offices in some of the heritage
houses. Due to this, the district of San Miguel can qualify as a heritage district which
Ivan Henares addressed as the “old millionaire’s row” on one occasion.
Apart from being the original site of one of the largest beer breweries in the
world, San Miguel Beer Corporation, the area once served as the summer vacation
destination for the country’s millionaires as many elite families decided to construct
their summer houses in the area enjoying the cold breeze from the Pasig River and its
perfect sightline toward Rizal Monument to Roxas Boulevard and Manila Bay. It was a
perfect vacation haven as the area was so peaceful, away from the busy life emanating
from the city center Intramuros and its contiguous districts.
At present, San Miguel houses four churches of heritage value like Basilica of San
Sebastian, San Beda Abbey, St. Jude Church, and the San Miguel Cathedral. Aside
from this, several educational institutions can be found in the district which forms
part of Manila’s so-called “University Belt”.

3.4 Sta. Ana and Pandacan

The district of Sta. Ana is known today as the community by the river due to its
proximity to the popular Pasig River. Apart from that, as the welcome marker of
the district proclaims, Sta. Ana is also popular for being a historic community and a
portion of it was declared as a histo-cultural heritage/overlay zone by the city council
of Manila in 2011 after long being threatened by heritage destructions. In addition to
its rich built cultural heritage, the district is also abundant with intangible cultural
heritage due to its rich pre-Hispanic kingdom communities.
During the Spanish era, the area became one of the community settlements for
the Spaniards as its proximity to the city’s capital and river transport system proved
to be very vital. As among the few areas to be spared from the destruction brought by
World War II, Sta. Ana still houses an impressive collection of at least 100 heritage
houses that was dubbed the “Forbes Park of Manila” from Spanish and American
periods as it became the enclave of Manila’s rich and famous families. It is located
at the end of most of Manila and is considered as the oldest settlement of the Pasig
River, where most of the heritage houses were constructed and until now faces the
river instead of the main alley.
Aside from the heritage houses, Sta. Ana also boasts pride in its 300-year-old
church of Our Lady of the Abandoned in which paintings on its ceiling were declared
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as national cultural treasures by the National Museum, as well as the burial site exca-
vated beside it where skeletons and pottery dating from the eleventh century Sung
Dynasty were discovered. Sta. Ana also used to be among the train stops of the popu-
lar tranvia. More than that, the residence of the Holy See, the Apostolic Nunciature, is
also located in the area which became very popular due to subsequent visits of numer-
ous Popes to the country during the post-colonization period. Aside from that, Pao
Ong Hu, a Taoist Temple considered as a mixture of Taoism and Buddhism beliefs,
is also located in the area nevertheless it was recently bought by a Chinese planning
to convert the structure into a commercial complex. The temple stands beside the
Nuestra Señora de los Desamparados Church which makes it unique as it resembles
what Mr. Boyet Magale (personal communication, 6 August 2021), heritage advocate
and tourist director of Manila Heritage Tours Sta. Ana, calls a “dialogue of faiths”, a
rare feat where two if not three different religious beliefs stand at one another.
Accordingly, over time there were numerous historical archaeological discoveries in
the area of Sta. Ana. At one point, contractors of the Department of Public Works and
Highways accidentally unearthed and damaged Chinese porcelain in the course of their
road widening projects. The same was the case during the construction of the controver-
sial Manila Green Residences, a high-rise condominium project, in which pieces of dam-
aged old pottery and other artifacts, probably due to poor excavation, were accidentally
discovered during the process (B. Magale, personal communication, 6 August 2021).
Today, Sta. Ana has been the consistent prime target of property developers due
to its prime location of being near the business districts of Makati and Mandaluyong
despite being declared as a heritage zone by the National Historical Commission
of the Philippines in 2014. The significant heritage structure of the old Columbian
Missionary house was demolished to give way to a development complex. This
prompted the community to develop and strengthen their community-based heritage
tourism program to preserve the community’s shared heritage prompting the local
city council to declare portions of the district as a heritage zone.
Right beside Sta. Ana is the district of Pandacan which serves as the connection
to the San Miguel district across the Pasig River. Pandacan became known for the oil
refineries located right at heart of the Manila. During the early days of community
settlement, the area of Pandacan served as a perfect place for the oil refineries which
were far from Intramuros, the center of commerce and community. Nevertheless,
because of the swift spread of development and its affiliate demands, the area was
staged with residential communities later on.
Pandacan was once dubbed the “Little Italy” and “Little Venice” of Manila, for its
landscape is surrounded by esteros and canals leading to the Pasig River. It was more
likely the reason why Pandacan became the cradle of opera and orchestral music
performance in the country, which later on inspired the Filipino poet and playwright
Francisco Balagtas known for the “Florante at Laura” masterpiece.
Pandacan also carries with it built heritage structures like the Pandacan Church
that bears the image of the Sto. Niño or Holy Child which succumbed to a fire incident
in 2020 thus lost its seventeenth-century wooden icon, Santo Niño de Pandacan. Apart
from this, the former residence of the Leyte-based political clan Romualdez remains
standing boastful and proud of being an example of a well-preserved heritage house.

3.5 Escolta and Sta. Cruz

Another integral part of Manila’s tourism circuit is the district of Escolta, among
the first communities established by the Spaniards in 1594. Escolta became the
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

commercial district of Manila developed progressively by its proximity to Intramuros

and Binodo and the Galleon Trade. If Binondo, San Nicolas, Sta. Ana and San Miguel
have a collection of heritage houses, on one hand, on the other hand, Escolta holds the
record for most of the country’s first commercial structures such as ice cream parlor,
department store, elevator, etc. as manifested in the area’s landscape filled with
heritage structures and buildings. Escolta was once known as the “Queen of Streets of
Manila”, serving as the premier central business district of the city.
In a list compiled by Coconuts Manila [24] presented in Cruz [25], at least nine
built heritage structures were identified in Escolta with the El Hogar Filipino Building
built in 1914 on top of the list. Another heritage structure in Escolta is the Capitol
Theater built in 1930 under the designs of Juan Nakpil as the first air-conditioned
theater in the country while showcasing an Egyptian-inspired step-pyramid. The
Uy Chaco Building is another heritage structure in the area, built among the first
skyscrapers of Manila that once served as general hardware for a Chinese business-
man before being occupied today by the Philtrust Bank as among its branches. The
once-cold storage of Ides O’Racca built in 1935 joins the list of skyscrapers in the
area. History books mention that the Japanese once occupied the building during
their invasion of Manila and situated machine guns on top serving as an efficient
watch post due to its strategic location. The building was numerously ravaged by
fire incidents and was managed to withstand a series of earthquakes in the area.
Another heritage pride of Escolta is the old HSBC building built in 1922 serving as the
bank’s main office. Next on the list is the well-acclaimed 1922 structure of the Pacific
Commercial building designed by national artist Leandro Locsin serving as the office
of the First National Bank of New York, popularly known as Citibank. The structure
was retrofitted today as the Juan Luna E-Services Building following the conservation
principles of adaptive reuse. The Don Roman Santos building of 1894, which once
housed the first savings bank in the Philippines, the Monte de Piedad Savings Bank is
now occupied by the Bank of the Philippine Islands as its Sta. Cruz branch also stands
at the premiere of the district. The Manuel F. Tiaoqui building, considered the first
pinned-wall building in the country is also located in the area. Another prime heritage
structure in Escolta is the former Roxas building built in 1934, popularly known today
as the Regina Building characterized as a neoclassical and beaux-arts style structure.
Other notable heritage structures in Escolta include the 1928 First United Building
which once served as the Manila Post Office before being the site of the infamous
Berg’s Department Store. The building was retrofitted by its present owners catering
to the principles of adaptive reuse, serving as the workspace of the HUB: Make Lab
and commercial spaces for start-ups. The first elevator-operated building built in
1919 the Burke Building, together with the Natividad Building, the Calvo Building
the former house of DZBB news radio station, and the 1965 Philippine National Bank
Building joins the prestige heritage list of Escolta (Figure 3).
Escolta for the longest time has been the subject of concern of heritage activists as
attempts to demolish the listed built heritage structures never seem to end to give way
to modern development. Indeed, the heydays of Escolta are on the brink of forgetful-
ness as the area gradually lost its golden touch to decay and neglect. Gone are the days
of the busy commercial life that lived by its name as the queen of streets of Manila,
and only a few Chinese entrepreneurs have decided to stay most are a members of the
Escolta Commercial Association, incorporated who continue to aspire to save what
was left and bring back the lost glory of Manila’s “Queen of Streets”.
Alongside Escolta is the district of Sta. Cruz which beforehand was practically
a marshland and rice paddies that were later converted by the Jesuits to a housing
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Figure 3.
Old map of Escolta, Manila. Available from: [Link]

community that patronizes the Our Lady of the Pillar. Because of the district’s
contiguity to Binondo and San Nicolas, the area catered primarily to Chinese resi-
dents who explored the outskirts of the Parian thus becoming an integral part of
Manila’s “Downtown” together with Escolta, Avenida Rizal, Quiapo, Binondo, and
Sta. Cruz. Manila’s downtown was known for its blend of business and residence at
the same time. The district’s nearness to the Pasig River became one of its greatest
assets for it allowed ships to load and unload their cargo as well as board and alight
passengers, thus practically becoming a ferry transport terminal and market at
the same time. Add more to that the development of Meralco street cars otherwise
known as tranvias which allowed greater people traffic in the area. Plaza Goiti,
today known as Plaza Lacson right in front of the BPI building in Carriedo, served
as the central station of the tranvias. Apparently, while Escolta caters to the upscale
strata, Sta. Cruz attractions are mostly entertainment bars that later were turned
into clubs by the Americans, theaters, department stores, and thrift shops, as well
as panciterias and restaurants that serve as places of formal and informal gather-
ings and meetings [26].
Just like Sta. Ana, Sta. Cruz was also spared from the ravages of World War II
destruction as Japanese forces voluntarily left the area before the start of the “Battle of
Manila”. With much of the structures remaining intact except for the Sta. Cruz Bridge
and the Sta. Cruz Church, the district likewise showcases notable built heritage like
the Sta. Cruz Parish Church or the Our Lady of the Pillar Parish Church, the Carriedo
Fountain, the Roman Santos Building, and the Monte de Piedad which is the first
savings bank in the country.
Nevertheless, despite escaping the wrath of the war, there are three graveyards
located in the district namely the Chinese Cemetery, Manila North Cemetery, and
the La Loma Catholic Cemetery. In addition, several tombstones were found within
the perimeter of the Sta. Cruz Church. As explained by De Viana [27], the sprawl of
cemeteries in Manila was due to the cholera outbreak in Manila in 1882 claiming many
lives. Such prompted the Spanish government to immediately construct cemeteries,
thus Sta. Cruz having the available land space during that time for being a previous
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

marshland and due to its nearness to the residential districts without having so much
of its own was chosen to be the location of these cemeteries.

3.6 Tondo I and Tondo II

Another hub of Manila’s heritage tourism is the district of Tondo, considered

the largest in terms of population size and land area, as well as the densest which
Carlos Celdran and Catriona Gray once called “the slums”. According to Carlos
Celdran, Tondo has always been the resettlement area dating back to the Spanish
era. Ever since the area of Tondo is known for its kingdoms as most territories were
ruled by a local chieftain who came from the same ancestry thus making them
relatives by blood.
Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, Tondo was said to be ruled by the Rajah such
as Lakandula, Soliman, and Rajah Matanda but was later subdued by the Spaniards
thus agreed to contract an agreement with the latter thus at one point in history Tondo
became the capital of the country which territories expanded as far as Bulacan up to
the mountains of San Mateo, Rizal.
Tondo was a perfect community area back then as bodies of water surrounded
Tondo such as the Pasig River, the Manila Bay, and some esteros and canals making
it a vital community during the early days of maritime trading. More than that, it
was considered a rival entrepot to Intramuros as Tondo had better control of the
entry point from Manila Bay to the Pasig River such that Spaniards during their
initial arrival in Manila docked at Manila Bay forced to battle the local chieftains for
sovereignty.
As the Chinese merchants enjoyed their newly given liberty to travel and right to
abode, many merchants decided to stay in the Tondo area, similar to Binondo which
served as an extension for the Galleon Trade. What separates Tondo from Binondo
is the popular shopping market best known for cheap finds in the area of Divisoria
which translates to Spanish as “boundary”. The Binondo part is best known for its
stone houses while the Tondo part was comprised of bamboo and thatch houses that
commonly fall prey to firebreaks.
At present, Tondo is known for being a warrior haven such that common con-
notations about the area include being the harbor of gangs and fraternities known for
their riots and street fights. More than that, Tondo is one of the places in Manila that
hardly attracts tourists, aside from its trademark of being the hub of mobs, it is also
known for its ambulant vendors and the petty crimes that go with it such as theft and
pickpocketing.
Nevertheless, such an image was not manifested without any cultural and his-
torical reference for the district’s patron was the Infant Jesus which is tagged as the
“warrior-child”. Historically, it became the heart of the Philippine resistance move-
ment during the Spanish invasion. Jose Rizal, after returning to the Philippines from
Spain in a failed effort to save his family from eviction, organized the La Liga Filipina
in this area which became the foundation of the soon-to-be-founded revolutionary
group, Katipunan.
Even before the revolutionary group Katipunan was founded, Tondo already
manifested a series of resistance against the Spaniards as Rajah Soliman, who once
ruled the area before being defeated by Legazpi, once rallied his allies and fought
the colonizers but on a losing effort. Additionally, Lakandula also once attempted to
revolt against Legazpi due to political differences but was eventually pacified when
the former was assured of exemption from paying taxes to the Spanish government.
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More than that, a series of local revolts occurred including the resistance from the son
of Lakandula, Magat Salamat, however, ended up losing his head at the hands of the
Spaniards [4].
Tondo by being a cornerstone of the Philippine nationalism movement is sure to
host numerous prominent Filipinos including Andres Bonifacio, who was born in the
area, and Emilio Jacinto raised in Tondo and considered as the brains of the group.
Additionally, the public plaza in the area, Plaza Moriones was once the center of the
political demonstration by labor unions seeking social justice and vindication, thus
incubating the first Communist Party of the Philippines. Aside from this, Tondo also
became the cradle of many literary greats inspired by the socio-political developments
in the area, including Huseng Sisiw, Bienvenido V. Santos, and Amado V. Hernandez
to name a few [4]. With so many prominent personalities, it is not surprising that
numerous heritage houses can be located within the vicinity.
Despite its population density, Tondo contributes to the list of heritage possessed
by the City of Manila. Among the list is the Sto, Niño church otherwise called Tondo
church which houses the iconic Infant Jesus in a red cape holding a cross-bearing staff.
The parish is the oldest in the country and popular for its annual festivity, second to
the popularity of the Feast of Quiapo, usually frequented by tourists in addition to the
devotees.
Tutuban also hosts one of the original train stations of the Manila Railroad
Company, presently known as the Philippine National Railways, operating the
Manila-Dagupan, Pangasinan line. The Tutuban Station served as the Manila station
of the said railway in 1887. Recently, the heritage station is planned to be incorporated
into the North-South Commuter Railway” under the “Build, Build, Build” project of
the Duterte administration.
In 2020, the Manila local chief executive aspires to address the plight of the
informal settlers in the area by putting up high-rise tenements complete with basic
facilities that will be called “Tondominium” much like a condominium with 2022 as the
target completion date.
If the present connotation to the district of Tondo is popular for its slum area, back
then the area was constituted by a combination of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie
which resembles the era of industrialization in the country. Tondo can be a good
example of a socialist state envisioned by Marx in his manifesto.
Today, Tondo is categorized into two districts, Tondo I, and Tondo II, the for-
mer is the busy and working zone while the latter is considered as the orderly and
quiet neighborhood. Nevertheless, while there appears to be a character distinction
between the two, both converge at Divisoria for their shopping thrills.

3.7 Sampaloc and Sta. Mesa

Sampaloc and Sta. Mesa is two districts lying on the outskirts of the City of Manila
near its boundaries, yet they still form part of the city’s tourism hubs. Sampaloc is a
district in Manila known for its numerous colleges and universities, hence tagged as
the “University Belt”. These include the Art Deco campus of Far Eastern University
built in 1939 comprised of five Art Deco Buildings and was declared as a UNESCO
Asia-Pacific Heritage Site. Also located in the area is the University of Santo Tomas
(UST) established in 1611 and was considered the oldest university in Asia. Four
UST structures were declared by the National Museum in 2010 as national cultural
treasures, this includes the UST Main Building, the Central Seminary, the Arch of the
Centuries, and the University’s Open Spaces. The National Historical Commission of
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

the Philippines declared the UST Manila Campus as a National Historical Landmark
in 2011, in time for the university’s quadricentennial celebration. Correspondingly, in
the vicinity is the National University established in 1900 as the first non-sectarian
coeducational facility in the country that used English as the primary language.
Apart from renowned cultural and historical schools, Sampaloc also includes
several ancestral houses such as the Jusay Ancestral House which served as one of the
headquarters of the Japanese Imperial Army during their occupation. Another heri-
tage site in the district is the Gota De Leche Building which served as the haven for
impoverished children whose mothers had difficulties in providing breast milk, a fine
example of heritage conservation after its renovation in 2002 adapting local crafts-
manship and materials in the preservation of the tilework, grills, and capiz windows.
The edifice was a World War II survivor and was designated as an Important Cultural
Property by the National Museum in 2014 [28]. Sampaloc also became popular during
the Filipino-American War where the former accused the latter of shooting a Filipino
soldier on the San Juan bridge thus further antagonizing both parties which the
NCCA later clarified as taking place in a different area. More than that, one can-
not complete a visit to Sampaloc without checking out the Dangwa Flower Market,
named after the bus station adjacent to it where until now fresh flowers from different
parts of the country are being sold.
Nonetheless, Sta. Mesa used to be part of the wider Sampaloc district until 1911
after Sta. Mesa had its parish church and was established as a separate legislative
district. Sta. Mesa, much like Sta. Cruz was a community of the Jesuits under the
patronage of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. During the Spanish era, Sta. Mesa is one of
the favorite neighborhoods of aristocrats for their summer houses enjoying the cool
breeze of the Pasig River similar to San Miguel. Moreover, Sta. Mesa’s setting of being
far from the city center gave a discreet neighborhood accentuated further by the rows
of Ylang-Ylang trees lined on the streets that produced a pleasant smell to the sur-
roundings comparable to perfume.
One of the heritage structures that still lie in the area though already dilapidated
is the PUP Antique Mansion known better as the Carriedo Mansion which served as
the house of the former Governor General Francisco Carriedo y Peredo known for
facilitating a clean water system in Manila. It was also the site of the Sociego Mansion
which was dubbed as “the Haunted House” by the urban folks for its scary setting cast
by horror movies that were filmed in the mansion. Nevertheless, the structure was
bought by real estate developer DMCI Holdings, Inc. in 2012 and recreated the man-
sion in Taguig City renamed Casa Real Mansion serving as an events venue with most
of the original parts, structure, and design maintained in what the developer branded
as an example of “creative reconstruction”.

3.8 Ermita and malate

Ermita is among the popular districts in the City of Manila today, mainly because
it has been dubbed as the new entertainment district of the city. Who cannot notice
the busy life in the streets of Ermita whether daytime or nighttime? One cannot surely
miss the congested traffic in the area in the morning as city dwellers flock to the area
as job seekers hop on from one recruitment agency to another hoping to look for bet-
ter job opportunities overseas. Aside from being an overseas employment recruitment
hub, many commercial centers sprouted like mushrooms in the area adding more to
the heavy people traffic. But as the sun sets in the afternoon, Malate starts to evolve
into a party district for nightcrawlers as bars and clubs start to operate.
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Ermita started to become a prominent place during the American occupation as

the Americans decided to further develop the city as a civic center. According to the
plan, government buildings will rise in the district to include the city hall for the city
government, the offices of the three branches of government, and a judicial hall.
In addition, a state-run educational facility (University of the Philippines) and a
hospital (Philippine General Hospital) were among the plans. Accordingly, the plan
was for Ermita to be the new core of the emerging nation-state to be established by
the Americans in their new colony [29]. To complement the design, entertainment
activities were established as well in the area such as parks and public plazas such as
the Rizal Park or Luneta to top off the list.
But the aftermath of World War II disrupted the grandiose plans for the district
in the so-called “Rape of Manila” or “Manila Massacre”. Even with the conservation
and renovation efforts instigated by the Americans to reestablish the area, one by one
families started to move to the suburbs as the area started to become unlivable due
to poor street lighting, unregulated street vendors, and proliferation of pickpockets
and thieves thus what used to be Manila’s high-class gradually acceded to low-class
commercialization. Today, Malate is often categorized as a “red light” district as bars
and clubs shine every night known for prostituting men and women of all ages mostly
foreigners.
Despite being far away from the ideal civic center conceptualized by the
Americans, numerous structures constructed during the American were able to
withstand the ravages of war however threats are far from over as development
continues to exert pressure on these surviving heritages. It started with the demoli-
tion of the famed Jai Alai building in 2000 that presently stands as a vacant lot beside
the controversial Torre de Manila which became the tipping point for a Philippine
heritage law to be enacted. Moreover, the Angela Apartments was demolished in 2009
after the owner ran out of funds for its conservation plan and thus decided to demol-
ish the property rather than incur further losses for maintaining an unprofitable
property. The same fate loomed over the pre-war structure of the Admiral Hotel and
Michel Apartments, which were demolished in 2014, as well as the case of the Philam
Life Building which was demolished in 2020 after property developer, SMDC, bought
the property with the plans of converting the heritage edifice to another high-rise
structure. Nevertheless, the Army-Navy Club was given a new life after it was restored
and rehabilitated as the Rizal Park Hotel following the principle of adaptive reuse, as
well as the Luneta Hotel adapting the conservation principle of old-and-new.
Still, Malate houses several prominent heritage structures in Manila including
the Rizal Monument in Rizal Park, the Malate Church, the National Museum, the
Quirino Grandstand, the newly renovated and preserved national heritage structure
Metropolitan Theater, the Manila Hotel, and the Masonic Temple of Ermita to cite a few.
Much the same, Malate’s twin sister, Ermita was once an integral part of Manila’s
grand civic center based on the 1905 Burham Plan of Manila of the Americans with
most of the residential properties exclusive to Americans and their families. The two
districts were where the wealthiest families of Manila used to live and were consid-
ered the first Forbes Park. However, the Ermita district suffered the same fate as its
twin sister during wartime. Hence, with some American families deciding to return to
their properties, some decided to permanently leave the area leaving many establish-
ments unattended which was taken over by vagrant people. But after the local govern-
ment commenced cleaning the two districts, business establishments like restaurants,
bars, clubs, and hotels gradually sprouted in the area which facilitated its transforma-
tion to a commercial district with a portion of Malate becoming a “red light district”.
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

Notwithstanding, Malate is the site of some heritage landmarks such as the De La

Salle University, the newly preserved and renovated Rizal Memorial Sports Complex,
and the Tanghalan Pambansa inside the Cultural Center of the Philippines.

4. The stakeholders of heritage and development in the City of Manila

There are numerous stakeholders involved in the issue of heritage conservation

in the City of Manila. Following the principles of stakeholders engagement by Wang
et al. [16] and Góral [17], this study grouped the stakeholders into four consisting of
1) the national government agencies; 2) the local government of the City of Manila;
3) the private organizations and business groups; and 4) non-governmental organiza-
tions, community-based organizations, and heritage advocates.
Generally, the role of national government agencies which includes the
Department of Tourism (DOT), the National Historical Commission of the
Philippines (NHCP), the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), and
the Intramuros Administration (IA), has been limited to laying down of overarch-
ing principles and monitoring of compliances to existing cultural heritage laws and
policies.
On one hand, the DOT serves as the government’s lead agency in promoting tourism
in the country, nevertheless, its programs have been limited in promoting heritage prop-
erties to be prime tourist destinations. On the other hand, the NCCA and its cultural
heritage arm, the NHCP, have been at the forefront of promoting heritage conservation
both in principle and in practice but their regulatory powers have been generally con-
strained to oversight. Moreover, the Intramuros Administration enjoys utmost control
and supervision of heritage conservation but is limited to their district only.
Contrastingly, the local government of the City of Manila holds a prerogative on
cultural heritage conservation within their jurisdiction as they have the mandate to
provide clearances for any significant developments involving any cultural heritage
site such as demolition permits, building permits, renovation clearances, etc. They
also have the power to implement zoning policies that will ensure the preservation of
built cultural heritage structures in their area such that most of the interview respon-
dents of this study refer to the local government as the vanguard of cultural heritage
conservation.
Nonetheless, non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations,
and heritage advocates can only do so much as their role has been traditionally limited
to being reactionary in the forms of protest, complaints, and filing of suits against
possible heritage conservation violators. Recently, the group assumed a proactive
stance on heritage conservation as movements calling for better heritage management
are on the rise hence assuming a supervising role such that the local government has
considered some of them as members of the technical working group, committee
members, and capacity-building seminar participants.
However, private organizations and business groups have the lowest level of par-
ticipation and engagement as reflected in the interviews as they were rarely consulted
in the formulation and implementation of cultural heritage programs and policies.
As different stakeholders play different roles, each likewise possesses their expec-
tations as reflected by their engagement and participation level as summarized in
Table 3. Hence, the varying interests of each stakeholder pose an imminent tension
and contribute to remote collaboration. Such makes the whole process very complex
with each trying to advance their interest and trying to outwit the others.
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Stakeholder Interests Participation Expectation

Level

National Government Community well-being, Medium Promoting and

Agencies Tourism development preserving cultural
heritage

Local Government Urban planning/zoning, Job High Promoting and

creation, Poverty reduction preserving cultural
heritage

Private Organizations Business profit, Maximum Low to Medium Experiencing cultural

and Business Groups return for minimal investment heritage (end-user)

NGOS, CBOs, Heritage Sense of place, Urban Medium to Preserving the

Advocates identity and pride, Historical High authenticity of cultural
Preservation heritage

Table 3.
Stakeholder analysis matrix.

5. The heritage and development tension

The cases of heritage destruction in the City of Manila mentioned in the previous
chapter confirm the conflict between heritage and development, but the findings of
this study provide that the prevailing tension is the result of poor awareness of the
economic significance of cultural heritage hence pining on the overall Filipinos’ lack
of cultural heritage consciousness. Table 4 summarizes the key points gathered from
the interviews.

National government

Name of organization Key informant Key points

A. Intramuros Mr. John “Cultural heritage conservation can improve the people’s quality
Administration “Rancho” of life not just in terms of economic development but social
Arcilla development as well.”

B. Department of Tourism Ms. Catherine “Heritage conservation is a significant action to sustain the value,
C. Agustin meaning, and significance of cultural resources from the past for
the use of present and inspiration of future generations.”

C. National Commission Mr. Lawrence “The city administrators need to present a clear concept of
for Culture and the Arts Charles E. sustainability concerning the local government’s cultural heritage
Salazar conservation efforts.”

D. National Historical Arch. Ma. Luisa “The NHCP nevertheless reiterated that the responsibility of
Commission of the Valerio heritage protection primarily lies with the concerned local
Philippines government unit as they are at the vanguards of heritage
preservation.”

Local government

E. City of Manila, Mr. Ronald “The conflict between heritage conservation and pursuit of
Department of Tourism, Flores economic gains subsists for the case of the City of Manila, but
Culture and Arts of Manila heritage conservation can be used for economic development at
the same time.”

Non-governmental organizations, community-based organizations, heritage advocates

F. Heritage Conservation Mr. Gio Abcede “Heritage sites should not be just about preserving the esthetics
Society features but, should be a tool in food security.”

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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

National government

Name of organization Key informant Key points

G. HUB Make Lab Mr. Roberto “The City of Manila has a rich cultural heritage that can be used
Sylianteng as an asset.”
H. UST Center for Dr. Eric “There is indeed a big money in heritage, stressing out that
Conservation of Cultural Zerrudo nakakain yan!. It is important to see the overall cultural heritage
Property and Environment conservation framework of the City of Manila and not just at
in the Tropics the physical composition of the structures which became the
foremost consideration in the conceptualization of the Manila
tourism development plan.”
I. Santa Ana Heritage Tours Mr. Boyet “Heritage can coexist with modernity.”
Magale
J. ICOMOS International Dr. Ivan “The real conflict does not exist, it’s just a product of poor
Anthony S. cultural education.”
Henares
K. Ateneo De Manila Dr. Fernando “The inevitability of commodification of culture needs to be
University, Institute of Nakpil Zialcita equalized by sustainable growth and not just desire for the mass
Philippine Culture market to generate bigger and better profit.”
L. Old Manila Walks Mr. Ivan Man “The City of Manila stands to benefit the most among the cities
Dy in Metro Manila in terms of cultural heritage tourism due to its
rich history and culture.”
M. San Sebastian Basilica Ms. Marianne “The tension between heritage conservation and developments
Conservation and Claire Vitug is a case of false dichotomy denying the argument that
Development Foundation, development cannot proceed by clinging to heritage.”
Inc.
Private organizations and business groups
N. Philippine Postal Mr. Lawrence “The tension rises when vested interest between contesting
Heritage Walking Tour Chan stakeholders take place.”
O. Meaningful Travels Mr. Jerome “The conflict tends to start when somebody tries to circumvent
Carolino the process and cut on expenses.”
P. Manila for a Day Mr. Dustin “Hyper- commercialization needs to be avoided, instead a
Ancheta balance between commercialization and preservation should be
adapted.”

Table 4.
Summary of informant’s key points.

Tourism Operations Office Chief Mr. Ronald Flores of the local government
of Manila admits that the conflict between heritage conservation and pursuit of
economic gains subsists for the case of the City of Manila, but Mr. Flores believes
that heritage conservation can be used for economic development at the same time
(personal communication, 29 June 2021). It was the same pronouncement made by
urban planner and lawyer Mr. Mark Evidente and heritage advocates Mr. Ivan Man Dy
and Mr. Boyet Magale believing that heritage can coexist with modernity.
In the case of San Sebastian Basilica Conservation and Development Foundation,
Inc., the executive director Ms. Marriane Claire Vitug considers the tension as a
case of false dichotomy denying the argument that development cannot proceed
by clinging to heritage. According to the executive director, the benefits of heritage
conservation vis-à-vis tourism development have been proven already in different
cities across Europe, in some parts of Asia, and locally in Vigan, Ilocos Sur, and Iloilo
City (personal communication, 28 September 2021).
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Moreover, ADMU IPC director Dr. Fernando Zialcita recommends that finding
symmetry between the two extremes is the main key mentioning that development
should likewise take into consideration the environmental implications and not just
pure profit stating the case of Boracay Islands in Kalibo, Aklan (personal communica-
tion, 3 September 2021). Hence, the capitalist mindset has been in the works in the
issue of heritage conservation such that mass market has been the main initiative
where the development criteria used are based on the quantity of tourists and amount
of money it generates but excludes the environmental and cultural heritage price it
has to pay.
Director Dr. Eric Zerrudo of the USTCCCPET (personal communication, 7 May
2021) on another point that in some instances over-tourism has become the problem
that has generated irreversible damage to the heritage that it was supposed to promote
and protect such that development should not be one-sided but instead has to be
sustainable. Tour operator Mr. Dustin Ancheta (personal communication, 18 May
2021) likewise recommended that hyper-commercialization be avoided, and a balance
between commercialization and preservation should be adopted instead.
Meanwhile, ICOMOS International Secretary-General Dr. Ivan Henares (personal
communication, 13 August 2021) even thinks that real conflict does not exist, it’s just
a product of poor cultural education. More so, tour operator Mr. Jerome Carolino
(personal communication, 2 May 2021) of Meaning Travels PH reiterated that conflict
tends to start when somebody tries to circumvent the process and cut on expenses.
Tour operator Mr. Lawrence Chan of the Philippine Postal Heritage Walking Tour
shared the same contention that tension rises when vested interest between contesting
stakeholders takes place (personal communication, 1 May 2021).
Given the various priorities and views of the different stakeholders, heritage
preservation appears to have a tug-of-war of political interest. The local government
needs to balance the interests of all stakeholders involved in this political activity.
Primarily, the local chief executive who serves as the main decision-maker needs to
figure out the best decision based on the different political interests at stake espe-
cially if there is an election coming up. More so, the limited tenure given to a single
term of office is one of the common hindrances to any comprehensive development
program as observed by director Dr. Eric Zerrudo (personal communication, 7 May
2021). It was the same predicament mentioned by the Secretary-General of ICOMOS
International Dr. Ivan Henares (personal communication, 13 August 2021) citing that
as local leadership changes typically change in plans go with it.
The NHCP nevertheless reiterated that the responsibility of heritage protection
primarily lies with the concerned local government unit as they are at the vanguards
of heritage preservation. Prior to the issuance of any structural clearances such as
construction or demolition permit, the developer needs to secure clearance from
the local government which is supposed to scrutinize or ask for the assistance of
attached agencies in the proper conduct of investigation and assessment (Architect
M. Valerio, personal communication, 27 April 2021). Furthermore, even if poli-
cies and laws are made available if not applied proactively will still not make sense.
Hence, even if the local government of Manila has an inventory of properties of
cultural importance if building officials responsible for issuing building clearances
do not integrate it into their inspection and investigation process, the inventory
which took so much effort to be consolidated will be rendered insignificant (Dr. I.
Henares, personal communication, 13 August 2021). Such highlights the loopholes
and shortcomings in the proper implementation of existing cultural heritage laws
and policies in the country.
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

A point that was mentioned as well by Mr. Ronald Flores, the Tourism Operations
Office chief of the City of Manila (personal communication, 29 June 2021), citing
that though laws exist that guarantee the protection of cultural heritage in the coun-
try, the loopholes provide a way to circumvent the law without breaking it. Hence,
national policies on cultural heritage should likewise be updated regularly to fit the
dynamic character of cultural heritage (Dr. I. Henares, personal communication, 13
August 2021).
Urban planner and lawyer Mr. Mark Evidente (personal communication, 4 August
2021) concurred that politics is indeed a factor in cultural heritage conservation. Such
that if policies and procedures are clear and there was no room to circumvent the law,
therefore nobody could take advantage of cultural heritage. There should be clear
enforcement of zoning by the local government. Similarly, Atty. Evidente mentioned
that having laws and policies protecting heritage is necessary though the law is not
perfect, if the community itself does not give significance to its heritage, policies
are rendered useless. The problem lies with the institutional and social values of the
people. The market should follow the law and not the other way around.
Mr. Boyet Magale, in his capacity as a heritage advocate in the district of Sta. Ana,
Manila concurred that most of the concerns about cultural heritage preservation are
politically inclined citing the case of the River Green Residences, a high-rise develop-
ment structure in their district. It was a mystery for Mr. Magale how the developer
was able to secure the necessary clearances granted that the district was already
declared as a histo-cultural heritage overlay zone, much like the case of the Torre de
Manila in Ermita, Manila. A different case is the petition by the new owner of the
Pao Ong Hu Taoist Temple in Sta. Ana to have it delisted from the list of Important
Cultural Property declared by the National Museum after plans of converting the
temple to a commercial complex were revealed. Mr. Magale was once more curious
why such a request was even considered by the same institution that worked on its
declaration as important cultural property, providing that such unfortunate circum-
stances take place because of people in authority’s vested interest and capitalist ethic
of some business groups (personal communication, 6 August 2021).
The same point applies to the fate of the Jai Alai Building in Taft Avenue, Manila.
The long-abandoned building was ordered to be demolished by the local government
of Manila to give way to the construction of the new Manila Hall of Justice which
never took place. Such can be considered as a case of wasted cultural heritage as
the building could have been better left alone instead of being demolished without
definite plans. Moreover, since the location of the former Jai Alai building stands
within the perimeter of the controversial Torre de Manila, it can speculate that the Jai
Alai building was demolished to facilitate the possible sale of the land to private land
developers such as the DMCI Homes.
It is also the same point suggested by Dr. Zialcita (personal communication, 3
September 2021) stating that during the 1930s, the City of Manila was considered
the most beautiful city in Asia but suddenly lost its prestige and glory because
of powerful economic interest at work. An idea that was reiterated as well by the
heritage advocate Mr. Ivan Man Dy (personal communication, 10 May 2021) saying
that in the perceived tension between heritage and modernity, it has always been the
economic and business side that comes first such that heritage has taken the backseat
despite the existence of heritage law, a manifestation of failure on the part of the local
government.
Given the complex nature of cultural heritage such that varying interests are at
stake, political interplay has taken place and affirms that high money and great profit
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are at stake in cultural heritage, whether taken positively through conservation or

negatively through development.

6. Conclusion: Cultivating a heritage-driven economy for the City of

Manila

This chapter presents how the tension between heritage conservation and
tourism development objectives impacts the sustainability of the City of Manila.
Generally, goal 11 of the SDGs prescribes that culture matters. It requires cities of
the world to be “safe, inclusive, resilient and sustainable”. Listed among its identi-
fied targets is “the strengthening of efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s
cultural and natural heritage.” As society tries to find the symmetry between
limited resources and unlimited wants, development has taken varying forms.
Either grasslands and bushes or empty lots and spaces with unpaved roads charac-
terize communities before; today, it has been dominated by residential properties,
commercial centers, shopping malls, and other high-rise properties. Society has
indeed undergone a rapid transformation. Nevertheless, such development did not
happen without constrictions with cultural heritage serving as the front line. As
communities take on the challenge imposed by modern living, it created a perspec-
tive that anything old is a representation of the backward past and, therefore,
should be discarded; a practice that left the City of Manila in a state of urban decay
and greatly affected the city’s sustainability.
Development has been branded as the evolution of traditional practices. It has
been perceived as a future-oriented process hence modernization practitioners
perceive cultural conservation as an obstacle that hinders improvement and stops
progress and development. Some see cultural heritage as something without value
or use and as a dead-end investment for the reason that it incurs a greater cost than
the perceived benefits [30, 31]. It has greatly imposed challenges and dilemmas,
particularly in developing countries such as the Philippines. As countries strive to
catch up with the fast-paced development trends imposed by leading industrialized
countries, cultural heritage usually takes the back seat. In support of this, Chohan and
Wai Ki [32] and Nijkamp [33] added that in every phase of development, the struc-
ture of the city is not the only one affected but the built environment, the traditional
physical composition, cultural and social values, and even the collective memory
of the community are hampered as well. Therefore, cultural heritage is given the
least priority in the process of urban development; an effort that is not given utmost
significance unless its correlation with economic development has been identified
[34]. Such became the foundation of the tension between heritage and modernity,
past against progress, heritage versus development, history against economy, and soul
versus stomach. It is a dilemma that the City of Manila is facing; whether to pursue
the standard and commercialized way to development or a road less traveled through
a heritage-driven economic development.
The findings of this chapter confirm that a conflict exists between the stakeholders
involved in heritage conservation and tourism development of the City of Manila.
As different interests clash (i.e., those of the Manila local government; national
agencies such as the Department of Tourism, the National Commission for Culture
and the Arts, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, the Intramuros
Administration; and private sectors such as tour companies and heritage advocates)
the sustainability of the City of Manila is greatly compromised.
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

The mandate of promoting the overall development of tourism has been the
cornerstone of the national government’s policies, while the local government
extends the concern to include developing the urban landscape and at the same
time addressing other development concerns like poverty, job creation, and zoning
policies. Moreover, the cluster of NGOs, CBOs, and heritage advocates focuses on the
preservation of urban identity, the sense of place, and pride that comes with histori-
cal preservation; while the group of private organizations and business groups focus
on the maximization of economic interest and business profit. In the end, cultural
heritage takes the backseat as minimal attention has been given to its conservation.
The tension between heritage and development stems from the lack of awareness
on the part of the stakeholders. To most, cultural heritage, tangible or intangible, is
just an ordinary concept that nostalgic people still adhere to. Others see heritage as a
hindrance to development as the old dichotomy of heritage and development provides
such that the usual practice is for cultural heritage to give way to the principles of
development leading to the destruction of built cultural heritage.
As the findings suggest, one common way to preserve cultural heritage is through
cultural tourism. It is suggested that making cultural heritage economically viable,
it can generate a creative economy that will put cultural heritage side-by-side with
development, thus contributing to sustainable development [9, 35]. Several studies
[11, 36–42] have considered culture as the “fourth pillar” of sustainable development.
It is the binding element between the three pillars of environmental protection,
economic growth, and social development.
Russo and Van der Borg [35] and Zerrudo [42] provide for a development model
that puts heritage at the center and enables more effective development interventions
in promoting sustainable growth, inclusiveness, equity, and diversity that will result
in economic benefits and non-monetized benefits. Such a model has been dubbed
the culture-oriented economic development model emphasizing heritage-driven
development.
The capacity of cultural heritage tourism to generate tourism revenues has long
been established. Looking at the landscape of Manila, it does not have any beach or
pristine lake to offer unlike other tourist attractions in the country but Operation
Chief Mr. Ronald Flores (personal communication, 29 June 2021) of the city’s tour-
ism department believes that the city being historically and culturally rich can spell
the difference. USTCCCPET Director Dr. Zerrudo (personal communication, 7 May
2021) shares the same aspiration with Heritage advocate Mr. Ivan Man Dy (personal
communication, 10 May 2021) in considering cultural heritage as the greatest asset
of the City of Manila. The city might have lost its touch already due to urban decay
issues, but ADMU IPC Director Dr. Zialcita (personal communication, 3 September
2021) believes that if managed accordingly and will try to adopt a more positive
approach toward heritage conservation vis-à-vis urban development, the City of
Manila has the power to regain its lost glory. Dr. Zialcita stated as well that the city
should use its rich cultural heritage as storylines for their tourism program, by put-
ting the money right where the mouth is [4].
Arch. Ma. Luisa Valerio (personal communication, 27 April 2021), the section
head of the National Historical Commission of the Philippines’ Architectural Historic
Preservation Division, likewise asserted the power of using heritage as a driver for
tourism. Similarly, tour operator Mr. Dustin Ancheta (personal communication, 18
May 2021) of Manila for a Day, believes in the long-term benefits of heritage preserva-
tion. Citing the case of the City of Paris, which after incurring damages from the war,
decided to restore the city’s landscape to its original form instead of reinventing it and
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redeveloping the land industrially. Such efforts generated a cumulative effect that the
value of properties near heritage areas, such as condominium prices, hotel rates, the
value of the land and the businesses, rose significantly as decades went by. Hence, by
destroying cultural heritage, its economic value is being devalued.
Relatedly, Mr. Gio Abcede (personal communication, 20 April 2021) of Heritage
Conservation Society, a heritage advocacy group, believes that tourism can be a tool
for food security. Tour operator Mr. Jerome Carolino (personal communication, 2
May 2021) of Meaningful Travels PH, one of the tour companies that operate and spe-
cializes in tours around the City of Manila, likewise agrees that cultural tourism, in
particular, can lead to income generation. This resembles the opinion of USTCCCPET
Director Dr. Eric Zerrudo (personal communication, 7 May 2021) that there is really
big money in heritage.
Mr. John Arcilla (personal communication, 31 March 2021), the head archivist of
the Intramuros Administration also implied that there can be direct and indirect ben-
efits in harnessing cultural heritage. It can generate employment for the community
at the same time it has the power to drive real estate prices as the spike in tourism can
lead to higher demand. Likewise, Mr. Arcilla believes that cultural heritage conserva-
tion can improve the people’s quality of life not just in terms of economic develop-
ment but social development as well that the City of Manila can capitalize on to uplift
not just the city but yield an inclusive development instead to improve quality of life
including mental health and recover financially.
Such statements respond to the usual concern over cultural heritage conservation
highlighting the tensions between past against progress, heritage versus development,
history in contradiction to the economy, and soul versus stomach. As such, the City of
Manila needs to capitalize on its greatest asset in pursuing development, which is its
heritage. Looking at the historical configuration of the City of Manila, the city boasts
an impressive collection of historical narratives that form part of its rich cultural
heritage.
Heritage tourism is among the bright spots, if not the only remaining hope of
Manila in regaining its lost glory and being at par with its neighboring Southeast
Asian cities. Heritage is among the strongest points of the City of Manila given its
cultural assets, urban fabric, and tourist attractions.
A historic urban landscape approach can be adopted by assessing the unique
strengths of every district based on its history, culture, and identity. This approach
can be best applied to the City of Manila in the development of its historical districts
through tourism. Tourism has a huge economic impact that will promote a circular
economy with direct economic benefits trickling down to individuals at the commu-
nity level which includes artisans, ambulant vendors selling food and souvenir items,
and parking attendants, among others. While the commodification of heritage seems
to be inevitable, it is important to inculcate the benefits of having heritage-driven
tourism to people. Financial resources for cultural heritage need to be generated
and preserved, either from government subsidies, private sector contributions, or
revenue-generating projects from the community. The best way to encourage heritage
preservation is by making it profitable for community members. As Bell [43] posits,
tourism requires the transformation of cultural resources to make them appealing and
relevant to tourists. To complement this, it is really necessary to facilitate community-
based heritage tourism that will promote a heritage-driven economy as a conservation
strategy. It offers beneficial rewards to the community as it generates awareness,
promotes livelihood, pumps up economic activity, and encourages sustainable care of
heritage at the same time.
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Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

There is also a need to strengthen cultural and heritage awareness among the
people. As the study found out, it has been this heritage neglect that instigates
historical urban decay. Since very few are aware of their own culture, no one is
willing to step up for it; hence will soon become forgotten values and missing
identity. It starts with inculcating cultural education among students, educational
trips to heritage sites and historical places should be encouraged especially for
state-funded schools and academic institutions. It can be likened to a seed, very
tiny, powerless, and helpless, but if sowed with passion can germinate into a sturdy
tree that can incubate life.
As this study affirms, cultural heritage refers to the promotion of every sense of
life colloquially. The success stories of heritage-driven development in other countries
have laid down the cornerstone for culture to serve as the fourth pillar of sustainable
development goals. Thus, the community must understand the relevance of heritage
to their lives and learn how to find economic value to it. Instead, heritage apprecia-
tion and preservation should be done for identity recognition side-by-side with its
corresponding tangible and intangible benefits. However, there is a lack of local
studies that can debunk the view that cultural heritage cannot contribute to economic
development.
Furthermore, the dynamic nature of cultural heritage necessitates a compre-
hensive review of existing laws and policies. The continuous demolition of built
heritage structures is a manifestation of policy loopholes that require to be addressed
to minimize opportunities for stakeholders to bend the law. Particularly, the process
of reviewing and granting development clearances concerning heritage structures
should be strengthened by ensuring transparency in every step of the decision-
making process.
The absence of clear guidelines on heritage conservation involving private prop-
erties is one of the predicaments in heritage conservation. The development of Las
Casas Filipinas de Acuzar, a heritage-themed resort is a case-in-point, where owners
of heritage private properties experiencing financial constraints have no clear idea
where to seek support, highlights the absence of a national law that grants incentives
to heritage conservation. Such desperate situations developed a policy gap that the
state failed to address until property developer and real estate magnate, Jerry Acuzar
stepped in to fill the hole as Acuzar was offered by heritage property owners in finan-
cial despair to bail them out. Nonetheless, managing and preserving heritage proper-
ties across different places proved to be not feasible thus it was recommended to move
all properties to one area that gave birth to the acclaimed heritage resort. The story
of Las Casas Filipinas de Acuzar manifests a policy gap on how to conserve heritage
properties that should have been the responsibility of the state but were passed on to
private entities.
Such a story is no longer a novelty in the Philippines with many heritage property
owners compelled to put their properties on the sale block rather than burdened with
financial constraints in an attempt to preserve a heritage property with no definite
return of investment aside from psychological reward, thus heritage preservation
should prove to be financially rewarding as well.
Furthermore, the pending legislation on heritage conservation incentives and the
cultural property sightline bill, also known as the “Anti-photobomber Bill” were steps
geared toward the strengthening of heritage conservation in the country. Likewise,
various local governments have taken the initiative in adopting local legislation grant-
ing tax incentives and exemptions to property owners that will adapt heritage conser-
vation practices in preserving heritage structures. Specifically, the local government
30
The Heritage Destruction of Manila: Cultivating a Heritage-Driven Economy for the City…
DOI: [Link]

of the City of Manila adopted ordinance no. 8385 in 2015 granting exemptions to
owners of heritage structures declared by the NHCP from paying basic real property
tax and special education fund taxes. But still much needs to be done before protec-
tion settles as the new default heritage outlook.
In conclusion, the various success stories of heritage-driven economy or cultural-
oriented economic development across literature have proven that cultural heritage
can generate a circular economy, thus spelling out the narrative of heritage versus
modernity as a modern myth or urban legend. Indeed, heritage can work side-by-side
with development.
In this study, a heritage-driven/culture-oriented economic development
framework was presented by Zerrudo [42] and Russo and Van der Borg [35, 44],
respectively, supporting culture as the fourth pillar of sustainable development.
With culture and heritage serving as a core part of the economy’s backbone through
an effective development intervention of a sustainable urban revitalization, it can
promote a creative economy by generating employment opportunities and improv-
ing existing economic conditions resulting in direct and indirect economic benefits,
in addition to non-monetized benefits like personal-psychological reward of being
proud to preserve the heritage and contribute toward ensuring future generations of
a heritage to remember. Such ways can contribute to the improvement of the sustain-
ability of the City of Manila in terms of overall quality of life and economic perfor-
mance as represented by the People and Profit sub-indices.
Finally, this chapter ends with a quote from Dr. Seus.

Unless someone like you

Cares a whole awful lot,
Nothing is going to get better.
It is not.”

List of abbreviations

Arcadis Arcadis Design and Consultancy

ADMU IPC Ateneo De Manila University Institute of Philippine Culture
CCCPET Center for Conservation of Cultural Property and Environment in
the Tropics
CBOs Community-Based Organizations
DOT Department of Tourism
GSIS Government Service Insurance System
IA Intramuros Administration
MDGS Millenium Development Goals
MET Metropolitan Theater
NCCA National Commission for the Culture and Arts
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NHCP National Historical Commission of the Philippines
PNB Philippine National Bank
SCI Sustainable Cities Index
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
UST University of Santo Tomas
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
31
Safeguarding the World Culture Heritage – Advances and New Perspectives

Author details

Geoffrey Rhoel C. Cruz

Mapua University, Manila, Philippines

*Address all correspondence to: grccruz@[Link]

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link]
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
32
The Heritage Destruction of Manila: Cultivating a Heritage-Driven Economy for the City…
DOI: [Link]

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