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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room
1. Thermal Physics temperature.
Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their
average kinetic energy.
1.1. Kinetic Particle Model of Matter Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute
zero (-273°C or 0 K) stops all motion.
States of Matter Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature
achievable.
Pressure and Kinetic Energy
Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds.
Each gas particle collision with a container wall changes
its momentum, creating a force.
The average force per unit area on container walls
remains constant at a constant temperature.
Increasing temperature raises collision frequency,
Matter consists of tiny particles like molecules and increasing average force and gas pressure.
atoms. E!ect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant
Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with Volume)
di!erent characteristics.
Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles.
are close together in fixed positions. Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and
Liquids have a definite volume and take the shape of energetic collisions with the container walls.
their container. The particles are further apart and can Increased collisions result in higher pressure according
slide over each other. to a gas law:
Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles
move much further apart and freely. ( PV = nRT )
E!ect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant
Brownian Motion Temperature)
Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids
and gases) and is caused by collisions with smaller,
faster-moving particles.
Temperature and kinetic energy
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Reducing the volume of a gas increases the
concentration of particles.
More particles per unit volume lead to more collisions
with the container walls.
The pressure increases proportionally to the decrease in
volume:
Variations in Gas Pressure with Volume
Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the
product of pressure and volume is constant:
Shrink-fitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting
(p1 V1 = p2 V2 ) tightly into other parts upon warming. Used in
manufacturing for tight connections without fasteners.
Graphing pressure ( p ) against the reciprocal of volume Lid Removal: Expanding metal lids with hot water
( V1 ) gives a straight line. loosens them from glass jars, leading to easier opening.
Absolute Zero and Kelvin Temperature Scale: Precautions
Absolute zero, at −273°C or 0 K, is the lowest possible Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used
temperature. in railways, and pipes to allow for thermal expansion
Kelvin scale temperatures are derived by adding 273 to without damage
Celsius temperatures: (T (K) = θ(°C) + 273)
Internal Energy and Heating
In the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are always positive
and directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of Internal energy increases when an object is heated.
particles. Di!erent materials require varying amounts of heat to
raise their temperatures due to di!erences in specific
1.2. Thermal properties and heat capacity.
Specific heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat
temperature required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1
degree Celsius per unit mass.
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
Temperature and Thermal Energy
Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more,
causing them to push apart slightly, resulting in Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of
expansion. particles.
Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a
with container walls, which causes container expansion substance, and more particles can hold more total
to maintain pressure. thermal energy even if they have lower individual particle
energies.
Applications
Heat Transfer and Equilibrium
Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with di!erent
expansion rates (e.g., copper and iron). Used in: Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies
Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit until thermal equilibrium is reached.
when exposed to heat, triggering alarms. This transfer is caused by collisions between particles,
Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to making their average kinetic energies equal.
break or complete electrical circuits
Specific Heat Capacity
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Specific heat capacity (c) is defined as the energy
required per unit mass per unit temperature increase,
measured in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
(J/(kg°C)
The formula relating heat energy (ΔE ), mass (m),
specific heat capacity (c), and temperature change (Δθ)
is: \n ΔE = mcΔθ
Specific heat capacity quantifies how much heat energy
is needed to raise the temperature of a substance.
Materials with higher specific heat capacities require
more heat energy per unit mass to achieve the same
temperature change.
Worked Example Calculation Evaporation
Given: Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or
Heat energy supplied, (ΔE = 20000, J) draughts increase the rate of evaporation.
Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid
Mass of the substance, (m = 5, kg)
during evaporation, cooling the liquid.
Temperature change, (Δθ = 10°C)
Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to
Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance. maintain a constant temperature.
Formula: Di!erences between boiling and evaporation
Feature Boiling Evaporation
The specific heat capacity (( c )) is given by: Temperature
Occurs at a specific boiling Occurs at any temperature below the
temperature. boiling point.
ΔE
c= mΔθ Process
Bubbles of vapour form within the
Occurs at the surface of the liquid.
liquid.
Energy Requires su#cient heat to reach Requires less heat and occurs due to
Substituting the given values: Requirement boiling point. energetic particles escaping.
20000 Speed Rapid compared to evaporation. Slower compared to boiling.
c= 5×10 Throughout Happens throughout the entire
Happens only at the liquid's surface.
Liquid? volume of the liquid.
Calculation:
c = 20000
50
1.3. Transfer of thermal energy
c = 400J/(kg°C)
Conduction
Change of State
Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to
Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a cold without moving matter.
liquid to a solid (freezing). Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum);
Pure substances melt and freeze at specific insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors.
temperatures, such as water at 0°C. Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the
Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming hand compared to insulators at the same temperature.
intermolecular forces to become a liquid. Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the
Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential particles are further apart and need time to transfer
energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid energy to each other.
becomes solid. Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons,
Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome raising temperatures in cooler areas and lattice
intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour). vibrations.
Condensation involves gas particles losing potential Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or
energy to their surroundings as they return to a liquid molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons.
state.
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Surfaces emit radiation di!erently when hot.
Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces.
All bodies emit radiation above absolute zero.
Greenhouse e!ect
Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a
greenhouse.
Balance between incoming solar radiation and emitted
Earth radiation crucial for climate stability.
Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this
Convection balance and absorb more infrared which cannot escape.
Heat transfer method in fluids like liquids and gases.
Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter
itself.
Convection Currents
Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less
dense.
Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm
fluid.
This movement of fluids due to temperature di!erences is
known as a convection current.
Radiation
A method of thermal energy transfer which occurs
without matter, even in vacuum.
Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light.
Absorption and Reflection
Surfaces vary in radiation absorption.
Black surfaces absorb more than shiny white ones.
Emission
Surface Type Absorption of Radiation Emission of Radiation Reflectivity
Shiny White Poor absorber Poor emitter High
Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter Low
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CAIE IGCSE
Physics
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