Fundamentals in Surveying I

Unit 1. Introduction to Surveying

This course provides an introduction to surveying from the perspective of providing the students
with the fundamental approaches to data acquisition methods, field techniques and procedures
which includes measurement of distances, directions and elevations, computation of areas,
volumes and other quatities, as well as the preparation of of necessary maps.
Planning and design are based on the results of surveys and construction is controlled by
surveying. Surveys cover a wide range in scope and complexity from staking out a simple
structures to extensive and difficult surveys required in the construction of subdivisions, bridges,
highways, canals, dams, railroads, wharves, missile and rocket launching sites, drainage and
irrigation systems and other numerous engineering avtivities. This is the reason to discuss ithe
different type of surveys and their importance to the different fields of engineering .

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the topic, the learners are expected to:
a. define surveying and discuss its applications in engineering
b. discuss the accurate and precise measurements and acquire essential habits of checking
numerical calculations, measurements and observations and apply adjustments and corrections.

1.1. Definition
Surveying is the art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish
the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines and areas on or near the surface of the earth
or on extraterretrial bodies through applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and
techniques (Juny Pilapil La Putt).
Surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles for one or more of the following
purposes:
1. To determine the relative positions of points on the earth’s surface – to locate
arbitrary points, configuration of the ground, direction and length of lines, boundary lines,
etc,
2. To set out the lines and grades needed for the construction of buildings, roads, dams,
and other structures,
3. To calculate areas, volumes and other related quantities,
4. As well as to prepare necessary maps and diagrams of an area.

Recently the equipment available and the methods applicable for measurements, storage,
calculation and compilation of the data have changed tremendously; mainly due to the growth
of the electronic industry and development the microprocessor. The global positioning system
(GPS) - a positioning method based on measurements to an orbiting satellites, total station
survey in which the distance and direction can be observed and stored with a single compact
instrument, Geographic and land information systems (GIS and LIS), digital photogrammetry,
etc are among the recent developments.
Surveying consists of 5 phases
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to produce a map, plat, or chart in the proper
form.
5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or stakes in the proper locations in the field.

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1.2. Application
Today surveying affects almost everything in our daily lives. For example it is being used:
In developing databases for natural resource management.
In establishing boundaries of public and private lands.
In preparing navigational maps (land, air, water).
To map the earth above and below the sea.
In geological and geophysical studies
In planning,,design, construction, erection renovation and maintenance of engineering
works.
1.3. Types of Surveying

On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or not,surveying can
be divided into two main categories:
1. Plane Surveying – surveying with the reference base for fieldwork and computations are
assumed to be a flat horizontal surface. Mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane. All
angles are plane angels and horizontal lines are considered straight. Most engineering works like
canal, railway, highway, building, pipeline and other constructions use plane surveying.
2. Geodetic Surveying – surveying technique to determine relative positions of widely
spaced points, lengths, and directions which require the consideration of the size and shape of
the earth. Geodetic surveying are of high precision and covers over a large area.

Based on the purpose of the survey, it is classified as:

1. Preliminary survey (Data gathering) -here distances and angles are measured to locate
existing physical features on maps plans etc so that the data can be used for further works.
[Link] survey- involves marking on the ground (using wood stakes, iron bars,
aluminum and concrete monuments, nails, spikes, etc.) the features shown on a design plan.
Example property line, engineering works (roads, pipelines, bridges . . .)
3. Control survey- used to reference both preliminary and layout surveys. Horizontal control
can be arbitrarily placed, but it is usually tied directly to property lines, roadway
center lines, or coordinated control stations. Vertical control is a series of benchmarks
permanent points whose elevation above mean sea level have been carefully determined.

Surveying can also be categorized according to the type of work done. Examples are:

1. Photogrammetric surveys – mapping utilizing data obtained by camera or other sensors

carried in airplanes or satellites.
2. Boundary surveys – establishing property corners, boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
3. Control surveys – establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as
a reference framework for other survey projects.

4. Engineering surveys – providing points and elevations for the building Civil
Engineering projects
5. Topographic surveys – collecting data and preparing maps showing the locations of
natural man-made features and elevations of points o the ground for multiple uses.
6. Route surveys – topographic and other surveys for long – narrow projects associated
with Civil Engineering projects like highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission lines.

7. Hydrographic surveys – mapping of shorelines and the bottom of bodies of [Link]

known as bathymetric surveying.

1.4. Basic Measurements and Instruments

A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a particularly
quantity in comparison to a given standard.

Surveying consists of four basic measurements:

Horizontal distance – measured by tapes, chains, tacheometers, EDM, pacing,
odometer, total stations, etc.

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Vertical distance – measured by levels, tacheometers, total stations.

Horizontal angles – measured by theodolites, compasses, total stations
Vertical angles – measured by theodolites, clinometers, total stations
Direct Measurement. A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard
measuring unit or units employed for measuring quantity of that kind. Some common examples are
applying a wire or tape to a line, determining a horizontal or vertical angle with transit, or fitting a
protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the intersection angle.
Indirect Measurement. When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity
to be measured, an indirect measurement is made. For example, the total length of the line would be
determined by the summation of a series of directly measured short segments.

Units of Measurement
There are two principal measurements in surveying works:
1. Linear measurements: the basic unit used is the meter.
Ex. Kilometer, decimeter, centimeter (SI units)
Yard, mile, yard, feet (English)

2. Angular measurements: even though the basic unit is the radian, the degree is used
in surveying field works.
Scales

The scale of a map or a plan is the ratio of a distance measured on the plan or map to its
corresponding distance on the ground. Example 1:100, 1:10,000. Scale primarily depends on
the type of the work done (the accuracy with which a distance is to be transferred from the map
or the plan). In general, scales may be categorized as follows:
For maps
a) Large scales <1:200
b) Intermediate scales 1:2000 to 1:10,000
c) Small scales 1:10,000 to 1:100,000,000
For plans
d) Site plans 1:50 to 1:500
e) Detail plans 1:1 to 1:20
A scale bar or a graphical scale is another form of indicating the scale of a drawing. It usually
appears with numerical scales on the drawing sheet.

Plan and Map

The difference between a map and a plan is that on a map the scale is too small to allow every
feature to be properly represented to scale. Thus, conventional symbols are used to represent
features that would otherwise be too small to be recognized. A plan, on the other hand, shows
all features on the ground correctly to scale.

1.5 Theory of Errors

Measurement is an observation carried out to determine the values of quantities (distances,
angles, directions, temperature …) the process of taking measurements involves physical
operations like setting up, caliberating, pointing matching comparing etc of the instrument.
The fundamental principle of measurement of surveying is that no measurement is exact and
the true value of quantity being measured is never known. No matter how a sophisticated
instrument used and all necessary cares are taken the result of a survey measurement will
contain some error. This is due to:

Lack of perfection by the surveyor in his senses of seeing touching, hearing.

Imperfection by the instruments and methods (in construction and adjustments and
environmental factors in their operation and approximations etc)
Therefore, it is theoretically impossible to get the ”exact” value or ”true” value of any measured
quantity as all of our measurements will contain some error and as the “ exact” value should

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contain infinite significant digits (Which is practically impossible). Hence one may ask why so
measuring, as we cannot get the “exact “value of a measured quantity? In surveying and
generally in any scientific measurements what is important is not the “exact’’ value rather the
possibility of carrying out the measurement to the degree of accuracy sufficient to the desired
purpose. Hence, as long as the desired accuracy is achieved our measurements can be used as
an equivalent to the “true “value.

1.6 Measures of quality

Accuracy: is a parameter indicating the closeness of measured value to the “true’’ or ‘’exact”
value of a quantity. It indicates the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. The
further a measured value from the its “true” value the less accurate it is.
Precision or apparent accuracy: is the degree of refinement with which a given quantity
is measured. In other words, it is the closeness of the measured values to one another regardless
of their closeness to the true value.
It is possible for surveyors to obtain both accuracy and precision by exercising care, patiency
and using good instruments and procedures.
In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ration of the error of the measurement to
the distance measured.
Note a measurement can be accurate but not precise; precise but not accurate; precise and
accurate; and neither precise nor accurate as shown in figure 1.6.

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Figure 1.6: example on the concept of accuracy and precision

1.7 Error
Error is generally defined, as the deviation of the measured value from the “exact” value of a
quantity. The study of errors is important in surveying as it helps the surveyor understand the
sources and exercise the necessary care and apply correction to minimize their effect so that
an acceptable accuracy is achieved.
Error sources
Generally the sources of errors in surveying measurements are:

a) Personal: This error occurs due to limitation of the surveyor’s sense of sight, touch,
hearing etc during survey activity. Also mistakes due to carelessness or fatigue of the surveyor
are classed under this category. This type of error can be minimized with care and vigilance
by the part of the surveyor.
b) Instrumental: it is the error type that occurs due to imperfection of the instruments in
manufacture and during adjustments and due to wear and tear by usage. Also included are
mistakes due to failure or damage of the instrument. This type of error can be minimized
with careful handling, maintenance and adjustment and calibration of instruments and by applying
corrections.

c) Natural: included under this are errors due to effect of temp, pressure, humidity,
magnetic variation etc. this type of error can be minimized by applying correction and by
carrying out the survey when their effect is minimal.

Other errors may also result due to choice of geometric or mathematical models used to treat
the measurements.
1.8 Error Types

Classically errors are classified in to three; these are Mistakes, Systematic errors and
Random errors.

a) Mistakes

These actually are not error because they usually are so gross in magnitude compared to the
other two types. These are rather blunder made by surveyor or his equipment and can occur at
any stage of the survey (during reading, recording computing and plotting).

Source: May be due to one of the following

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Carelessness or fatigue by surveyor

Failure of equipment
Examples are:

- Reading wrong scale

o Transposing figure in recording ex 56 instead of 65 or reading 6 instead of 9.
o Omitting digits during recording ex 200 instead of 2000
- Sighting towards wrong target etc.

Generally, these class of errors can be easily detected and eliminated if strict and well
designed procedures and methodologies are followed in measuring recording etc. Some of these
are:
Taking multiple independent readings and checking for reasonable consistency
Careful checking of both sighting on targets and recording
Using simple and quick techniques for verification, applying logic and common sense
Checking and verifying performance of equipment particularly that with an electronic
read out
Repeating the measurement with slightly different techniques or adopting different
datum/ index
In relatively complex models, applying geometric or algebraic checks to detect mistakes
Simply noting that mistakes have large magnitude so can easily be detected

Note: an observation with a mistake is not useful unless the mistake is removed, otherwise,
that observation must be discarded.
b) Systematic errors

These are error types with relatively small magnitude compared to mistakes, and are result
of some systems whose effect can be expressed in mathematical relations; hence their
magnitude and sign can be estimated (determined). In most cases, the system causing the
systematic error can be personal, instrumental or physical and environmental conditions or
may be result of choice of geometric or mathematical model used.

Systematic / cumulative errors are those which for constant conditions remain the same as to
sign and magnitude: hence mare repetition will not help in detection and elimination. As their
values can be determined correction can be applied to improve the data. In addition,
proper calibration and adjustment of instruments also contribute to minimizing their effect.
c) Random Error

These are types of errors that remain after elimination of mistakes and systematic errors.
They occur because neither the surveyor nor his instruments are perfect. The magnitude of
this type can be estimated (standard deviation) but unlike that of systematic errors their sign
cannot be determined. Hence correction cannot be applied.

These types of errors are random in their nature and are thought to have normal
probability distribution. Their effect can be greatly decreased by exercising care and
vigilance by the part of surveyors and by using high precision instruments.
1.9 Significant figures
The expression significant figures are used to designate those digits in a number that have
meaning. A significant figure can be any one of the digits 1, 2, 3… 9; and 0 is a significant
figure except when used to fix a decimal point. Thus, the number 0.00456 has three significant
figures and the number 45.601 has five significant figures.

Rules of significant numbers:

1. Rule 1. Zeroes between the other significant figures are significant, as, for example in the
following values eaxh of which contains 4 significant figures : 12.03, 35.06, and 4009.
2. Rule 2. For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal such as in the

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follwing values which contains three significant figures; 0.00325, 0.000468 and 0.0230.
3. Rule 3. Zeroes placed at the end of the decimal numbers are significan such as: 169.30,
366.00 and 11.000. All values are with five signicant figures.

In surveying measurements, the proper number of significant figures ahould be recorded for
every measured value to obtain desired precision.
1.10. Rounding Off Numbers
Rounding of a value is the process of dropping one or more of the final digits so that the value
contains only the significant figures required for further computation or for portraying the final
results. The following the procedures of rounding off values are generally accepted:
1. Digit is less than 5. When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the number is written
without the digit. Thus, 24.244, rounded off to the becomes 24.24.
2. Digit is equal to 5. When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number is
used for the preceding digit increased by one. Thus, 226.28, rounded of to the nearest
hundredth becomes 226.28. Correspondingly, 226.28, rounded off to the nearest tenths
would be 226.3.
3. Digit is greater than 5. When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the number is
written with the preceding digit increased by one. Thus, 226.276, rounded off to the
nearest hundredth becomes 226.28.

1.11 Adjustments

The term adjustment is used to imply that the given values of the observations must be altered
or adjusted, to make them consistent with the model, leading to the uniqueness of the estimated
unknowns.

Several techniques can be used to adjust redundant measurements. The most rigorous and
commonly used is the method of least squares.

Other approximate adjustment techniques can also be employed. If it is assumed that

measurements are of equal quality, or weight, the residual could be divided equally among
the observations. If these were not true and the different weights of the observations could
be estimated, then each observation would be assigned a residual that is somewhat different
from the others.

References:
1. LA PUTT, Juny P.(1987) Elementary Surveying, 3rd [Link] Graphics Arts Inc.
2. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology, ADDIS ABABA
UNIVERSITY (2008) , Surveying I Course Material.
[Link]

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