Aerodynamics Brainstorm by www.EASA66.

com Tropopause separates Troposphere (Std lapse rate) and Stratosphere (Little change
in Temp)
Print it out and learn it by heart! Surface Inversion: ground cools by radiation, cools the air near the surface.
Atmosphere consists of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% other gases
Lower air cooler than higher airwith small temp/dew point spread, fog or low
Troposphere is where temperature decreases with altitude (1.98o C 1000ft) and where
clouds can develop.
the weather takes place.
Ice can form on an aircraft in flight when the temperature is below freezing and
Lapse Rate ISA International Standard Atmosphere = Temperature decreases
visible moisture is present. Highest accumulation is associated with freezing rain.
1.98o C per 1000ft
Optimum temp for icing is 0o to 15o C. Almost no icing below 40o C (-40o F).
Temperature Unit conversion F = 9C/5+32 C = 5/9(F-32) K=C+273
Extremely heavy rain can form a film of water over the wing that can be rough-
Temperature Variation in the Troposphere is
ened by impact of raindrops and cause a loss of lift.
above the Equator -80o C , above 45o N/S -56o C , above the poles -45o C
At Sealevel the atmosphere pressure is normally 950 - 1050mb or hpa (1013 hpa
Presented for the EASA part 66 or
is standard)hpa = hecto pascal = Static Pressure. With increase in altitude at-
equivalent Part 66 exam by [Link]
mospheric pressure drops e.g. at 30,000ft the pressure is 300.9 hpa = Pressure
Altitude = the ISA pressure given for a certain altitude (also density altitude). In
The strength Newton is defined as 1 N = 1 Kg ms2
reality this varies with the ambient temperature. Density = M ass in kilogram A vector is clearly defined by amount and direction.
V olume
per cubic meter . Factors affecting density when considering a gas are Density = Static pressure changes decreases accordingly, if the stagnation pressure increases.
P ressure I.C.A.O. defaults (ISA) sit down together from air pressure, temperature and at-
GasConstant · Absolutetemperature
mospheric pressure. The fixed values are 1013.25 mbar, +15 Celsius, 1.225 kg/m3
Reduced air density above 10,000 ft affects the human body and leads to hy- The ISA upper temperature limit of the troposphere is -56,5 C
poxia, lack of judgement to sleepiness or collapse according to altitude. The air pressure at a value of 10,000 m is only at 14
The greater the humidity, the lower the air — humidity decreases the total pressure The density of air with 15C at sea level is 1.,225 kgm3
Performance Ceilings Info from [Link] ISA sea level temperature is 15C
Service Ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb of an aircraft falls below 100 The partial pressure of nitrogen in the dry atmosphere with an air pressure of
ft per minute 1000 hPa is 780 hPa
Absolute Ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to zero ICAO standard atmosphere, expressed in hPa and in Hg is 1013,.25 hPa - 29.92
in Hg
Gas Laws Boyle’s Law = P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 V= Volume , P= Pressure The ”relative dampness” is the water vapour quantity in grams, which is contained
in a kilogram of air (gg)
V1 V2
Charles’ Law = = V= Volume , K= Constant — Volume increases Troposphere is the lowest air layer of the atmosphere.
K1 K2
Weather condition takes place in the troposphere
by 1/273 per every o C Turbulence sheet metals serve improvement of the laminar current
P1 ·V1 P2 ·V2 Lift depends on profile and angle of incidence
=
Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Law Equation The streamline density at a washed body in a subsonic flow is twice as large in a
K1 K2
Presented for the EASA part 66 or certain place as in the unimpaired current and the speed doubles.
equivalent Part 66 exam by [Link]
Presented for the EASA part 66 or
Speeds equivalent Part 66 exam by [Link]
Indicated Airspeed IAS = dynamic air pressure of air against a vehicle = 1 ρV 2 = The coefficient of drag depends mainly on the form and the position of the body
2
Dynamic Pressure to air flow direction.
Rectified Airspeed RAS is IAS corrected for instrument position errors Continuity equation law follows directly from the thought model of the current
Equivalent Airspeed EAS = Rectified Air Speed corrected for compressibility (as sub- tube.
tracted quantity) The difference between wing and profile-polar is that the profile-polar develops
True Airspeed TAS = the Equivalent Air Speed corrected for Density with even current
Calibrated Air Speed CAS for mean sea level compressibility corrected indicators also Direction or price stability receives an airplane above all by the vertical stabilizer
corrected for instrument and position errors Lift: In the stationary cruising is the weight of an airplane with an aerodynamic
Mach Number is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound force in the equilibrium.
Info from [Link] The adjustment angle is the angle between profile chord line of the wing and air-
plane longitudinal axis
Bernoullis Principle: When a gas is accelerated, its pressure decreases. Pressure point moves forward (not pressure-point-fixed profile) on increase of the
angle of incidence.
Presented for the EASA part 66 or Stagnation pressure quadruples if the airplane doubles the airspeed.
equivalent Part 66 exam by [Link] Point of envelope is where the laminar boundary layer becomes turbulent?.
Pressure point drift develops through the change of the lift distribution
Principles of Airflow Resulting aerodynamic force: In the stationary gliding flight is the weight of a
Dynamic pressure at 400kts is about 4 psi (1013.25 hpa = 14.69 psi) glider with an aerodynamic strength in the equilibrium.
Moving air passes and airfoil quicker than a cube, therefore the shape is very im- The coefficient of lift depends mainly on profile and angle of incidence
portant. In a venturi or on an airfoil A1 · V1 = A2 · V2 , which means the mass
of air being at the leading edge is meeting again at the trailing edge. Therefore Presented for the EASA part 66 or
it must flow faster over the curved area and therefore reduces its pressure, which equivalent Part 66 exam by [Link]
gives the lift on the airfoil.
All three axes of rotation intersect at the center of gravity; thus the aircraft ma- The clockface diagram shows the connection between the coefficient of drag and
neuvers around the CG. coefficient of lift
Angle of Attack: Angle between the relative wind and the chord. The course (direction -) stability of a conventional airplane is essentially caused
Angle of Incidence: is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the by the vertical stabilizer
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The totalpolar change opposite the to the wing-polar is the smallest gliding angle
The Stagnation Point is the place where the air divides and so the full Dynamic becomes larger
Pressure will attack there. The lateral stability manufactured through the sliding rolling moment
The flow along the Boundary Layer may be laminar = parallel in streamline to Critical Mach number is the Mach number with locally for the first time arising
the surface or turbulent. The highest lift coefficient is in the laminar zone. After speed of sound in the subsonic flight
the laminar area the airflow becomes turbulent until it separates and the wake Static pressure change decreases accordingly, if the stagnation pressure increases.
begins. How does friction resistance at the wing section behave with continuous thickness
Aspect Ratioratio of wingspan to the mean aerodynamic chord. High aspect however an increase of the depth of profile? - It increases with increasing depth
ratio (long thin wings) have increased lift and decreased drag at high angles of of profile likewise
attack. They have the disadvantage of increased drag at high airspeeds. Aircraft An airplane has six degrees of freedom.
with low aspect ratios have poor drag characteristics at low speed, but are more The induced resistance of a wing increases with the angle of incidence
efficient at higher airspeeds.
A wing will always stall at the same angle of attack. The load factor, weight and Presented for the EASA part 66 or
density altitude will cause the stalling true airspeed to vary but the stall angle of equivalent Part 66 exam by [Link]
attack will always be the same.
Parasite drag increases with the square of the aircrafts airspeed. Includes form,
skin friction, interference and wave.
Induced drag is a byproduct of lift and is proportional to the angle of attack of
the wing.
The greatest change in airplane trim and stability will occur when power is added
at slow speed.
As an aircraft burns fuel and becomes lighter, the optimum cruise altitude slowly
increases and the speed that yields the optimum cruise performance slowly de-
creases.

Presented for the EASA part 66 or

Absolute Altitude: the altitude at which maximum climb power can just main-
tain level flight and zero rate of climb.
An airplane climbing at constant Mach number will experience a decrease in TAS
as the temperature decreases.
Subsonic: below .75 Transonic: from .751.2 Supersonic: 1.25.0 Hypersonic: over
5.0
Critical Mach: the speed at which the first airflow over the wing reaches but
does not exceed the speed of sound
Mach Tuck: as the critical Mach number is exceeded, part of the wing root is
shock stalled. This causes loss of downwash on the tail as well as an aft movement
of the wings center of pressure. The result is a pitch down tendency.
Swept wing greatly increases the critical Mach number, increases aspect ratio
and effective camber, and reduces the maximum coefficient of lift. Also the wing
tips have a strong tendency to stall first which gives early loss of aileron control
with very little aerodynamic buffet on the tail surfaces.
Dutch Roll: a yaw causes the opposite swept wing to produce more lift and in-
duced drag. This causes a roll in the direction of yaw and a corresponding yaw
in the opposite direction. Usually dampened out by vertical stabilizer but a yaw
damper may be required.
Temperature Lapse Rate: 2 C per 1,000 ft to 38,000 ft.
Pressure Altitude: height above standard datum plane.
Indicated Altitude: current local altimeter, approximates actual height above
sea level.
True Altitude: actual height above sea level. Higher than indicated when warm.
Lower than indicated when cold.
Density Altitude: pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temps. Higher
than pressure alt when warm and lower than pressure alt when cold.
Air Density: airs thickness determined by pressure, temperature and humidity.
Greater air density means more oxygen available for combustion. Increases with
increasing pressure and decreases with increasing temp or humidity.