Aerodynamics Brainstorm File
[Link]
Atmosphere consists of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% other gases
Troposphere is where temperature decreases with altitude (1.98o C 1000ft) and where the weather takes place.
Lapse Rate ISA International Standard Atmosphere = Temperature decreases 1.98o C per 1000ft
Temperature Unit conversion F = 9C/5+32 C = 5/9(F-32) K=C+273
Temperature Variation in the Troposphere is
above the Equator -80o C , above 45o N/S -56o C , above the poles -45o C
At Sealevel the atmosphere pressure is normally 950 - 1050mb or hpa (1013 hpa is standard)hpa = hecto pascal
= Static Pressure. With increase in altitude atmospheric pressure drops e.g. at 30,000ft the pressure is 300.9
hpa = Pressure Altitude = the ISA pressure given for a certain altitude (also density altitude). In reality
this varies with the ambient temperature. Density = VM ass
olume in kilogram per cubic meter . Factors affecting
density when considering a gas are Density = GasConstant P· ressure
Absolutetemperature
Reduced air density above 10,000 ft affects the human body and leads to hypoxia, lack of judgement to sleepiness
or collapse according to altitude.
The greater the humidity, the lower the air — humidity decreases the total pressure
Performance Ceilings Info from [Link]
Service Ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb of an aircraft falls below 100 ft per minute
Absolute Ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to zero
Gas Laws Boyle’s Law = P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 V= Volume , P= Pressure
V1 V2
Charles’ Law = K1 = K2 V= Volume , K= Constant — Volume increases by 1/273 per every o C
Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Law Equation PK 1 ·V1
1
= PK
2 ·V2
2
Speeds
Indicated Airspeed IAS = dynamic air pressure of air against a vehicle = 21 ρV 2 = Dynamic Pressure
Rectified Airspeed RAS is IAS corrected for instrument position errors
Equivalent Airspeed EAS = Rectified Air Speed corrected for compressibility (as subtracted quantity)
True Airspeed TAS = the Equivalent Air Speed corrected for Density
Calibrated Air Speed CAS for mean sea level compressibility corrected indicators also corrected for instrument
and position errors
Mach Number is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound
Info from [Link]
Principles of Airflow
Dynamic pressure at 400kts is about 4 psi (1013.25 hpa = 14.69 psi)
Moving air passes and airfoil quicker than a cube, therefore the shape is very important. In a venturi or on an
airfoil A1 · V1 = A2 · V2 , which means the mass of air being at the leading edge is meeting again at the trailing
edge. Therefore it must flow faster over the curved area and therefore reduces its pressure, which gives the lift on
the airfoil.
Zone of greatest lift
Laminar
Airflow Turbulent
U ?
® Separated
¸
Stagnation
Point K
Wake
Zones around an airfoil
The Stagnation Point is the place where the air divides and so the full Dynamic Pressure will attack there.
The flow along the Boundary Layer may be laminar = parallel in streamline to the surface or turbulent. The high-
est lift coefficient is in the laminar zone. After the laminar area the airflow becomes turbulent until it separates
and the wake begins.
1
LIFT
Lift Resultant
6
Thrust
Airflow
±
cg Drag
® -
Angle of Attack
6
Forces on an Airfoil
Weight
DRAG
Drag is divided in Profile Drag or Zero Lift Drag and Induced Drag or Lift Dependent Drag
Profile Drag = parasitic drag consists of:
Form or Pressure Drag
a part of Profile Drag depends on: Size, Fineness Ratio, Speed, Air Density, Separation Point.
Skin Friction Drag
depends on Wetted Area, Surface Roughness, Speed, Viscosity and Density, type of boundary layer flow.
Interference Drag occurs where two airflows meet e.g. wake.
Define chord line : a straight line joining leading edge and trailing edge, act as a reference line
Aircraft is ground by : bonding straps
Boundary layer definition : airflow passes over aerofoil and retard by skin
Define the centre of pressure : A point on the chord line, at which, the lift of the main planes acting vertically
through this point
Stagnation point : the point on the leading edge of an aerofoil where the airflow separates, some going over along
the surface and some going below along the surface
2
Print it out and learn it by heart!
Atmosphere consists of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% other gases
Troposphere is where temperature decreases with altitude (1.98o C 1000ft) and where
the weather takes place.
Lapse Rate ISA International Standard Atmosphere = Temperature decreases
1.98o C per 1000ft
Temperature Unit conversion F = 9C/5+32 C = 5/9(F-32) K=C+273
Temperature Variation in the Troposphere is
above the Equator -80o C , above 45o N/S -56o C , above the poles -45o C
At Sealevel the atmosphere pressure is normally 950 - 1050mb or hpa (1013 hpa
is standard)hpa = hecto pascal = Static Pressure. With increase in altitude at-
mospheric pressure drops e.g. at 30,000ft the pressure is 300.9 hpa = Pressure
Altitude = the ISA pressure given for a certain altitude (also density altitude). In
reality this varies with the ambient temperature. Density = M ass in kilogram
V olume
per cubic meter . Factors affecting density when considering a gas are Density =
P ressure
GasConstant · Absolutetemperature
Reduced air density above 10,000 ft affects the human body and leads to hy-
poxia, lack of judgement to sleepiness or collapse according to altitude.
The greater the humidity, the lower the air — humidity decreases the total pressure
Performance Ceilings Info from [Link]
Service Ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb of an aircraft falls below 100
ft per minute
Absolute Ceiling is the altitude where the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to zero
Gas Laws Boyle’s Law = P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 V= Volume , P= Pressure
V1 V2
Charles’ Law = = V= Volume , K= Constant — Volume increases
K1 K2
by 1/273 per every o C
P1 ·V1 P2 ·V2
Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Law Equation =
K1 K2
Speeds
Indicated Airspeed IAS = dynamic air pressure of air against a vehicle = 1 ρV 2 =
2
Dynamic Pressure
Rectified Airspeed RAS is IAS corrected for instrument position errors
Equivalent Airspeed EAS = Rectified Air Speed corrected for compressibility (as sub-
tracted quantity)
True Airspeed TAS = the Equivalent Air Speed corrected for Density
Calibrated Air Speed CAS for mean sea level compressibility corrected indicators also
corrected for instrument and position errors
Mach Number is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound
Info from [Link]
Bernoullis Principle: When a gas is accelerated, its pressure decreases.
Principles of Airflow
Dynamic pressure at 400kts is about 4 psi (1013.25 hpa = 14.69 psi)
Moving air passes and airfoil quicker than a cube, therefore the shape is very im-
portant. In a venturi or on an airfoil A1 · V1 = A2 · V2 , which means the mass
of air being at the leading edge is meeting again at the trailing edge. Therefore
it must flow faster over the curved area and therefore reduces its pressure, which
gives the lift on the airfoil.
All three axes of rotation intersect at the center of gravity; thus the aircraft ma-
neuvers around the CG.
Angle of Attack: Angle between the relative wind and the chord.
Angle of Incidence: is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
The Stagnation Point is the place where the air divides and so the full Dynamic
Pressure will attack there.
The flow along the Boundary Layer may be laminar = parallel in streamline to
the surface or turbulent. The highest lift coefficient is in the laminar zone. After
the laminar area the airflow becomes turbulent until it separates and the wake
begins.
Aspect Ratioratio of wingspan to the mean aerodynamic chord. High aspect
ratio (long thin wings) have increased lift and decreased drag at high angles of
attack. They have the disadvantage of increased drag at high airspeeds. Aircraft
with low aspect ratios have poor drag characteristics at low speed, but are more
efficient at higher airspeeds.
A wing will always stall at the same angle of attack. The load factor, weight and
density altitude will cause the stalling true airspeed to vary but the stall angle of
attack will always be the same.
Parasite drag increases with the square of the aircrafts airspeed. Includes form,
skin friction, interference and wave.
Induced drag is a byproduct of lift and is proportional to the angle of attack of
the wing.
The greatest change in airplane trim and stability will occur when power is added
at slow speed.
As an aircraft burns fuel and becomes lighter, the optimum cruise altitude slowly
increases and the speed that yields the optimum cruise performance slowly de-
creases.
Absolute Altitude: the altitude at which maximum climb power can just main-
tain level flight and zero rate of climb.
An airplane climbing at constant Mach number will experience a decrease in TAS
as the temperature decreases.
Subsonic: below .75 Transonic: from .751.2 Supersonic: 1.25.0 Hypersonic: over
5.0
Critical Mach: the speed at which the first airflow over the wing reaches but
does not exceed the speed of sound
Mach Tuck: as the critical Mach number is exceeded, part of the wing root is
shock stalled. This causes loss of downwash on the tail as well as an aft movement
of the wings center of pressure. The result is a pitch down tendency.
Swept wing greatly increases the critical Mach number, increases aspect ratio
and effective camber, and reduces the maximum coefficient of lift. Also the wing
tips have a strong tendency to stall first which gives early loss of aileron control
with very little aerodynamic buffet on the tail surfaces.
Dutch Roll: a yaw causes the opposite swept wing to produce more lift and in-
duced drag. This causes a roll in the direction of yaw and a corresponding yaw
in the opposite direction. Usually dampened out by vertical stabilizer but a yaw
damper may be required.
Temperature Lapse Rate: 2 C per 1,000 ft to 38,000 ft.
Pressure Altitude: height above standard datum plane.
Indicated Altitude: current local altimeter, approximates actual height above
sea level.
True Altitude: actual height above sea level. Higher than indicated when warm.
Lower than indicated when cold.
Density Altitude: pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temps. Higher
than pressure alt when warm and lower than pressure alt when cold.
Air Density: airs thickness determined by pressure, temperature and humidity.
Greater air density means more oxygen available for combustion. Increases with
increasing pressure and decreases with increasing temp or humidity.
Tropopause separates Troposphere (Std lapse rate) and Stratosphere (Little change
in Temp)
Surface Inversion: ground cools by radiation, cools the air near the surface.
Lower air cooler than higher airwith small temp/dew point spread, fog or low
clouds can develop.
Ice can form on an aircraft in flight when the temperature is below freezing and
visible moisture is present. Highest accumulation is associated with freezing rain.
Optimum temp for icing is 0o to 15o C. Almost no icing below 40o C (-40o F).
Extremely heavy rain can form a film of water over the wing that can be rough-
ened by impact of raindrops and cause a loss of lift.