Highway Geometries

Highway Geometries are the elements of a road which are visible to road users.
Objectives:
□ Properly designed Highway Geometries provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation, with maximum
safety.
□ Every road user desires to reach his destination safely, in shortest possible time and with least
inconvenience.

Main elements of the highway geometries :

Gradient, supper elevation, camber, road width, horizontal and vertical curves, sight distances are the.

Highway geometries can broadly be classified under following three headings.

1. Cross-section elements like camber, super elevation, etc.
2. Sight distance characteristics like stopping sight distance, over takings sight distance, etc.
3. Horizontal and Vertical alignments.
Friction
Friction is one of the factors to determine distances required for stopping and accelerating the vehicles
at maximum operating speed. On horizontal curves lateral friction helps counter act the effect of
centrifugal force. Following are the factors which affect friction coefficient:
1. Type of road surface-Bituminous, W.B.M., earth, cement concrete.
2. Pavement condition-rough, smooth, oil spilled, muddy; wet and dry.
3. Conditions of tyres-worn out and new.
4. Brake efficiency.
5. Tire pressure.
6. Load on tires.
7. Temperature of tyres and pavements.
8. Speed of the vehicle.
9. Type of skid if any. Differences between skid and slip
□ Wheel slide without revolving, is knows as skidding.
□ In skidding phenomenon the distance travelled by wheel on road is greater than the circumferential
movement of the wheel. When brakes are applied wheels get locked and still if vehicle moves
ahead longitudinal skidding takes place. While moving on horizontal curve if value of centrifugal
force becomes more than the counter-acting force, lateral skidding takes place.

□ Slipping is actually opposite phenomenon to skidding.

□ In slip, distance travelled by wheel on road surface is always less than the circumferential movement of the

wheel. Slipping always occurs in driving wheels.

Design controls

Highway geometries are greatly affected by so many factors. The important factors being the following:

1. Topography.
2. Design speed.
3. Traffic factors.
4. Volume and capacity factors.
5. Environmental and other factors.
1. Topography: Topography of the area significantly affects the geometric design of highways. The area under

consideration may be plain, rolling, mountainous and steep. The design standards for different classes of roads are

different for different areas classification. In hilly terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper

horizontal curves.

2. Design speed: It is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highways.
Different speed standards are assigned for different class of the road. Design of almost every geometric design
element of a road is dependent on the design speed. Road width, clearance requirements, sight distance, radius of
horizontal curves, super-elevation, gradient etc. are all affected by design speed.
3. Traffic factors: Vehicular characteristic and human characteristic of road users also affect geometric
standards of any road. Cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles all have different speed and acceleration characteristics.
Physical, mental and psychological characteristics of drivers and pedestrians also affect traffic behaviour.

4. Volume and capacity factors: The road way facility is not designed for the peak traffic flow but for slightly

lower values. Hence a reasonable value of traffic volume is decided by multiplying the peak flow with a factor. The ratio

of volume to capacity affects the level of service of the road.

5. Environmental and other factors: Landscaping, noise, air pollution and aesthetic conditions also affect road
geometries. Some important roads such as express way are designed for higher speed standards. In order to maintain
uninterrupted flow of traffic road ways may be provided grade separated intersections and controlled access.

Camber

Transverse slope given to the road surface is called camber. It is also sometimes called crossslope. It is provided
mainly to drain off rain water from the road surface. In straight roads the highest point is called the crown. The camber
is expressed as the slope of the line joining the crown with the edge of the carriage way. It is denoted by 1 in n.

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Excessive camber should not be provided unnecessarily because of the following reasons:

I. Most of the vehicles will tend to, move along the centre line of the road and thus road capacity is affected.
II. Edges of the road surfacing wear out faster than the central part, because vehicles moving near edges put more

load on the wheels moving near the edges.

III. Because of tilt, high loaded vehicles may topple over easily.
IV. Due to rapid flow of rain water, cross-ruts may develop on the road surface.
V. During overtaking operation, vehicles tend to drag, causing uncomfortable conditions.

PARABOLIC CAMBER

vnmuvHKiiv HI MUWI mn wfrni W > u t KV

COMPOSITE CAMBER

Fig. Different types of camber

Providing Camber
. 2x2
y
nB

B= Width of pavement, n= Camber (for 1 in 20 camber, value of is 20), x=horizontal distance of the point where

offset or ordinate is being determined from the centre of the pavement, y=offset or ordinate of wooden baulk. At

centre value of y is zero,

Carriage way width

Metalled pucca strip of road meant for vehicular traffic movement, is called carriage way. Width of carriage way

depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of traffic lanes. Width of carriage way on which a standard

vehicle can move safely in one direction with some

minimum side clearance is called a Traffic lane.

Median strips or traffic separators

Traffic separators are provided with following objectives,

1. To segregate traffic coming from opposite direction.

2. To segregate slow and fast traffic moving in same direction.

3. To channelize traffic into streams at intersections.

4. To slow down the crossing and turning traffic.

Kerb

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 Kerb is a dividing line between carriage way and shoulders in rural roads. It is also a basis of separating foot paths,

islands, kerb parking spaces, from carriage way. According to the height, kerbs may be of three types.

I. Low or mountable kerbs: This kerb is about 7 cm to 9 cm high with top inside edge sloped. This kerb helps in

longitudinal drainage of the road.

II. Low speed Barrier Kerb: Height of this kerb is 15 cm to 20 cm. This is the kerb mostly used in urban roads to

separate carriage way from traffic separators, footpaths, islands, etc.

III. High speed barrier kerb: This kerb is 23 cm to 45 cm in height. This kerb is mainly used at critical location such as
bridges and hill roads.

IV. Submerged Kerbs: In rural roads submerged kerbs in the form of standing bricks or sometimes, in form of thin

concrete slabs, are provided between carriage way and shoulders. Such kerbs remain submerged and provide lateral

stability for granular base course and pavement itself.

Shoulders

Shoulders are strips provided on both the sides of the carriage way. Shoulders serve as parking place for vehicles

which have developed some defect and need parking. If shoulders are not provided, vehicles going out of order shall

have to be parked on the .carriage way and thus efficiency of the road is affected and may even become cause of some

serious accidents. Minimum width of shoulder may be about 2.5 m as recommended by I.R.C.

Foot Paths

Foot-paths are also called side walks and are provided along the kerb lines in urban roads They are the raised strips

constructed along both the edges of the road. They provide protection to the pedestrians and reduce the possibilities of

accidents. Minimum width of the footpath recommended is 1.5 m.

Parking Lanes

Parking lanes are provided along urban roads to allow kerb parking. Parking should be allowed

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only in direction parallel to the main road.

Drive wavs
They are a sort of link roads which connect important highways with fuel-stations, service-stations, bank and
commercial establishments.
Right of Wav
Area to be acquired along the road alignment is called right of way. The width of right of way depends upon the width of

formation, slopes of cuttings and embankments, depth of cutting and banking, possibilities of future widening, minimum

sight distance on horizontal curves, and drainage system and their sizes, etc. This width is also called land width of the

road.

Typical Sections of Roads

R-l-S -W- M ------------------------- I o ——4,-NH •« ——1

p.-------------------------------------------------------------UAbCO - ----------------------------------------------------------------H

LAND w I DT M

(A) Cross-section of NH and SH rural area

(B) and C Cross-sect Ion of Mnjor district road flllinR and cutting
(D) Village and other district road cross-section in filling <E) Three lane city road built up both sides. (F 7) Divided or
dual Highway in urban area

Sight Distance
Sight distance: Sight distance is the actual length of road over which a driver sitting at a
specified height in a vehicle can see objects either moving or stationary, on the road surface
It can be classified into three categories depending upon the situation.

1. Stopping sight distance.

2. Safe overtaking sight distance.

 3. Sight distance at intersection.

Stopping Sight Distance

It is the minimum distance required within which a vehicle moving at designed speed can be stopped without colliding

with a stationary object on the road surface. Hence stopping sight distance at summit curve is that distance measured

along the road surface which a vehicle's driver whose eye is 1 ‘22 m above road surface can see an object of 10 cm

height also situated at road surface.

(a) Sight distance at hirizontal area

The factors affecting stopping sight distance are, the speed of the vehicle, efficiency of brakes, total reaction time of

driver, longitudinal slope of the road, and lastly frictional resistance between road surface and vehicle tyres.

Reaction time: It is the time in seconds which a driver can take from the instant the object is visible to him to the instant

the brakes are effectively applied.

Reaction time can be divided into perception period and brake reaction (me.

Perception period is the time taken by an average driver to realize a danger ahead before actually trying to apply the

brakes.

The short time lag between the perception of danger and the effective application of brakes is called the brake reaction

time.

Stopping distance analysis : Stopping distance consists of two parts,

1. Distance travelled during reaction time. This distance is also called lag distance.

2. Distance travelled by the vehicle from the instant of effective application of brake to the dead stop position of the

vehicle. This distance is called braking distance.

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 Calculation of lag distancpLpg-i40[ G.C. Singh

Calculation of braking distance Lng-111. G.C. Singh

Stopping distance at slopes: ng-V? G.C. Singh

Overtaking sight distance (OSD)

The distance visible to the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake another slow moving vehicle, without causing
any inconvenience or possibility of accident to the traffic in the opposite direction, is called overtaking sight
distance or safe passing sight distance. According to IRC standard, overtaking sight distance is that distance
measured along the centre line of the pavement which a driver whose eye is 1.22 m above the road surface an
see the top of an object also 1.22 m above the road surface.

EYELEVEL

Fig. Overtaking sight distance (OSD) on vertical curve

Following are some of the factors which affect the minimum overtaking sight distance.
I. Skill and efficiency of the driver intending to overtake,
II. Spacing between both vehicles intending to overtake and to be over taken,
III, Speeds of three vehicles namely vehicle overtaking, overtaken, and vehicle coming from
opposite direction.
IV. Acceleration rate of overtaking vehicle.

Analysis of sight distance : pq-147, G.C. Singh

Sight distance at intersection

Let. A and B are two vehicles approaching a road intersection. C is the point where both these vehicles can
collide. ABC is a sight triangle.

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 CROSS ROADSj* X________—- - -—
X. sD
r- -—fa &
S.D.

□
A

Lateral sight distance at road intersections can be decided according to the following three condi tions.

I. Suitable sight distance should be provided, to enable, either of the vehicles to change speed to avoid

collision. Hence lengths of sights AC and BC should be at least equal to the distance travelled by each vehicle at

designed speed in two seconds. ^SIGHT- LINE T//iM

.nr^
OBSTRUCTION
II. Stopping distance. One of the two intersecting roads is -always a main road. The distance for minor road
TO VISION
should be at least equal to safe stopping distance.
III. Enabling a stationary vehicle to cross the main road: The minimum sight distance along the main road
should be the length moved by a vehicle at design speed during the time (T) taken by the stopped vehicle on minor
road to cross the major or main road. Design speed
□ Design speed is the speed which can be allowed on a road without risking safety conditions.
□ The value of design speed is dependent on the type, importance, and surface characteristics of the road,
type and intensity of traffic, road geometries and topography of the area.
Super elevation
To reduce the tendency of the vehicle to topple or skid, the outer edge of the road pavement is raised with respect to
the inner edge, thus tilting the road surface from outer edge towards the inner edge. This lateral inclination to the road
surface is known as super elevation/ cant/ banking and expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect
to the inner edge and the horizontal width of the road. It is generally denoted by e.
The value of e depends on:
I. Speed of the vehicle on the curves.
II. Radius of the horizontal curve,
III. Lateral frictional resistance between vehicle tyres and road surface.

Analysis of super-elevation : pg-157. G C Singh

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Minimum super-elevation
calculated value of super-elevation is equal to or less than the camber value, minimum superelevation to be
provided should be equal to the camber slope, to affect effective drainage, of the road surface.
Maximum super-elevation
It is recommended that the super elevation should be provided, to fully counteract the centrifugal force according to
75% of the design speed, and also limiting the maximum super-elevation to 1 in 15. If calculated value of super-
elevation is < 1/15 or 0.067, the full value of super-elevation is provided. But if this value exceeds limiting value of
1/15or 0.067, provide maximum super-elevation equal to 1/15.

Design steps for super elevation : pg-166 G.C. Singh Horizontal Curve Radius :
Horizontal curve: When highway changes its direction in horizontal plane, a horizontal curve has to be used to bring
about this change.
Extra Width of Road at Horizontal Curve

Following are the reasons of providing extra width of pavement at horizontal curves.

[Link] have a tendency to keep away from the edge of the carriage way, while driving on curves.

II. The clearance between the vehicles, crossing or passing each other over horizontal curves, is kept

more than that on a straight road due to psychological effect.

III. While negotiating a horizontal curve the front steering wheels are turned and thus more space of

road is occupied by the vehicle.

[Link] travelling on horizontal curve, rear wheels do not trace the same path as front steering wheels do.

This is called off tracking. In this position more width of the road is occupied by the vehicle.

V. At more than designed speed if super elevation and lateral friction jointly can not counter act the

centrifugal force fully, out ward slipping of rear wheels may occur and thus more width of road is covered. The

condition occurs at very high speeds.

VI. At start of the curves, drivers have a tendency to follow outer edge of the pavement to have better

visibility and large radius curved path. This also necessitates extra width of the road.

VII. Trailer units require even larger extra width at curves.

Horizontal Transition Curve

 Transition curve is such a curve whose radius changes from infinity to some finite value or between two finite

values. This curve is also called easement curve.

Objects of providing transition curve are enumerated as follows:

I. To obtain gradual and easy transformation from straight to circular curve and from circular curve to

the straight roads.

II. To obtain a gradual increase of curvature from zero at the tangent point, to that of circular curve at

their junction point.

III. To accomplish a gradual increase of super-elevation from zero on the tangent point to a

specific value on the main circular curve.

IV. To obtain a gradual increase of extra widening from zero at the tangent point, to a specified
value at junction point with the circular curve.

Fig. Spiral, Lemniscate and cubic parabolic curves

Transition curve should satisfy the following conditions:
I. It should meet straight and simple circular curve tangentially.
II. It should have the radius of curvature equal to that of circular curve at that Junction point and infinity
at the Junction point with the straight road.
III. Rate of increase of curvature and super-elevation should be same.

Length of transition curve:

I.R.C. Empirical Formulae

IRC gave following two formulae to find out the length of horizontal transition curve L. for different terrains.
(a) For Plain and rolling terrains

(b) For Mountainous and steep terrains

Design stepsforatransitlon horizontal ____________________________

curve1are as follows:
0
 ulate the length of transition curve based on allowable rate of change of the centrifugal acceleration.
2. Calculate the length of transition curve based on rate of change of super elevation.
3. Check the minimum required value of Ls as per IRC empirical formulae.
4. Adopt the highest value of Ls, obtained from (1), (2) and (3) steps as the design length of the transition
curve.

Gradient:

The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to horizontal distance is termed as gradient. A
rising or ascending gradient is denoted by plus ( +) sign while descending gradient by negative (-) sign.

The angle which measures the change of direction at the intersection of the two grade lines is called deviation angle.

Gradients can be classified into following types.

1. Ruling gradient: It is the gradient within which the engineer attempts to fix the vertical profile of the road. Its
value depends upon the type of terrain, length of grade, speed of vehicles, power of the vehicles, type of traffic,
and presence of horizontal curves in the road alignment.

2. Limiting gradient: Limiting gradient is steeper than ruling gradient and is provided at places where by slightly
adopting steeper gradient lot of savings in earth work and other aspects can be achieved.
3. Exceptional gradient: Situations may arise where gradient even steeper than limiting, may have to be
provided. Such a gradient is called exceptional gradient as it has to be provided only in unavoidable
circumstances.

4. Average gradient: This gradient is expressed as a resultant of continuous constant slope between two

points.

5. Minimum gradient: From road surface, rain water can be drained off by providing suitable camber to road
surface and cross fall to shoulders etc. but certain minimum longitudinal slope in the side drains is required for
draining away water collected in them. Value of minimum gradient depends upon topography, type of -soil,
amount of run off, and other conditions.

6. Floating gradient. It is that slope of the road over which if a truck or a vehicle coming downwards with certain
speed is declutched and vehicle continues to maintain its speed constant with out any engine power. Such a gradient
is called floating gradient.

Grade compensation: If a horizontal curve is located on ascending road the vehicles climbing this curve and grade

will have to come across the joint resistance offered by grade and curve both. Under such circumstances gradient

is slightly reduced so that vehicle may deal with resistances offered by both curve and, grade, effectively. This

reduction in gradient is called grade compensation.

Vertical Curves

In road alignment when two different or contrary gradients meet, they form a curve in vertical plane known as

vertical curve. Vertical curves are classified into two categories,

I. Summit curves and 2. Valley curves.

Summit curve: The vertical curve having convexity upwards is called a summit curve. This curve develops

when an ascending road intersects a descending road or when an ascending gradient meets another
 ascending gradient or an ascending gradient meets a horizontal road or when descending gradients meets

another descending gradient.

But in actual practice, a simple parabolic curve is generally adopted because of following reasons.

1. Since angle of deviation is small and length of the curve is quite large a simple parabolic summit curve is

nearly congruent with a circular arc between the tangential points.

2. Parabolic calculations are easy to make, in the field.

Length of summit curve: pg-191. G.C. Singh

1. Length of summit curve for stopping sight distance (SSD). pg-191. G.C Singh

2, Length of summit curve for safe overtaking sight distance (OSD) or intermediate slgbt distance (ISP): pq-192.

G.C Singh
Valley Curves cun/e
A vertical curve having concavity upwards or convexity downwards is called a va

Length of valley curvej_pg-194, G.C. Singh