PGDE 764; FUNDAMENTALS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

The word curriculum has been used by educators and scholars all over the globe to describe
school activities and programs.

Curriculum-Singular, Curricula –Plural

1.1. Definition of curriculum

The word curriculum began as a Latin word currere meaning to run or to proceed ("a race" or
"the course of a race")

It was first used in an educational context by Petrus Ramus a professor at the University of Paris
in 1576 in an educational context. This was used in an attempt to bring order to education.

The term was then used by Calvinist at the University of Leiden in 1582. Curriculum was also
used as a word to describe the course of study in 1633 in European Universities.

Curriculum means different things to different people; it is therefore important to consider

the context in which the term is used. The meaning attributed to the word ‗curriculum‘ is
associated with particular ideology or set of beliefs about education and the world.

Kerr and Kelly (2009) define curriculum as all the learning which is planned and guided by the
school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside of school.

Braslavsky (2003) discusses that a curriculum is an agreement among community, educational

professionals and the state on what learners should take on during specific periods of their lives.
It defines “why, what, when, where, how and with whom to learn.” A curriculum can be seen as
a course of studies, which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education by
attaining certain skills, knowledge and attitudes.

Wiles (2005) view curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and
enacted by the teacher and also learned by students.

The first book on curriculum was published by John Franklin Bobbit in1918. He described a
curriculum as a course of deeds and experiences through which children become the adults they
should be to succeed later in life.

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The term curriculum therefore refers to:

 A course of study that will enable the learner to acquire specific knowledge and skills.

 A planned sequence of instruction

 The totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process.

 Curriculum can be defined as a plan used in education that directs teacher instruction.

 The lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or program.

 The combination of instructional practices, learning experiences, and students'

performance assessment that are designed to bring out and evaluate the target
learning outcomes of a particular course.

Curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which
includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet; the units and
lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials,
videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and other
methods used to evaluate student learning.

Curriculum is an idea expressed in documents such documents include syllabus, schemes of

work, teaching guideline, circulars from the inspectorate, examination regulations by examining
bodies such as KNEC, legal instruments such as Education Act, KNEC Act, and Education
Commission Reports

Curriculum is a program of studies in which a set of materials are used in order to achieve set
objectives. The curriculum includes all that goes on in the school including outside activities
such as guidance, field activities, clubs/societies and interpersonal relationships. All curriculum
is planned by the school although some of its activities take place outside the school.

1.2. Characteristics of curriculum

 The curriculum has educational quality. Quality education comes through the situation of
the individuals intellectual and creative capacities for social welfare and development. The
curriculum helps the learner to become the best that he can possibly be. The curriculum
support system is secured to augment existing sources for its efficient and effective
implementation.
 A good curriculum has administrative flexibility. Should not be narrowly conceived but
dynamic. Therefore a good curriculum should be flexible enough to provide room for

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 changes and amendments. Therefore the curriculum is open to revision and development to
meet the demands of globalization and the digital age.
 It should be psychologically sound taking into consideration relevant theories. A
curriculum should be based on psychological, sociological, economical theories. Such
theories include child developmental, behavioral, motivation and management theories. It
should in cooperate children’s’ capacities and capabilities
 It should be democratically conceived through the efforts of a group of individuals from
different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the interests, needs and
resources of the learner and the society as a whole. The curriculum is therefore a product of
many minds and energies.
 It must be mostly based upon the first hand experiences of the pupils from all the
significant areas of human living. This experiences are characterized by newness novelty,
challenges, stimulation and creativity. It should aim at bringing about an intelligent and
effective adjustment with the environment itself. It should enable students acquire relevant
scientific information of subsequent use in the significant areas of human living.
 The curriculum is continuously evolving. It evolved from one period to another to the
present. For a curriculum to be effective it must have continuous monitoring and evaluation.
Curriculum must adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs of a modern
and dynamic community.
 The curriculum is based on the needs of people and should reflect the needs of individual
and the society as a whole. The curriculum is in proper shape if it meets the challenges of
times and makes education more responsive to the clientele it serves.
 The curriculum is a result of long term effort. It takes a long period of time in planning,
management, evaluation and development.
 The curriculum is a complex of details. It provides the proper instructional equipment and
meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the student teacher
relationship, guidance and counselling program, health services, school and community
projects, library and laboratories, and other school- related work experiences.
 The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the community.
The curriculum is responsive to the other needs of the community. The school offers its

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 assistance in the improvement and realization of on-going programs of the community
towards greater productivity.
 The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter. Learning is therefore
developmental. Classes and activities should be planned thus providing for continuity of
experiences.

1.3. Dimensions/Forms of curriculum

There are four dimensions of curriculum as identified in Oluoch (2006)

 Formal dimension consisting of activities that are taken as formal class work usually
defined in a written syllabus.
 Non formal dimension in which the activities are usually referred to as co-curricular or
as intra-curricular. These activities are usually planned for but take place outside class.
 Informal or hidden dimension. These are activities that do not appear formally but are
practiced either inside or outside the class and school. For example assimilation of
desirable habits such as good discipline when they observe staff members, environmental
attention, cleaning, social interactions, and language skills.
 Emerging curriculum consisting of activities that come along for example insecurity,
drought and changes in politics.

2. ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM
The four elements of curriculum are related.
1. Goals, aims and objectives. The benchmarks or expectations for teaching and learning,
directed to the outcomes
2. Content-/formal and non-formal activities also referred to as subject matter.
3. Organization of learning experiences or learning activities
4. Evaluation procedures

2.1. Component I: Curriculum Aims, Goals And Objectives.

i. Aims

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An aim is a general statement of intent which serves as a visionary intention. Aims are
concerned with purpose of education. Aim is an expression of a long-term purpose of education.
The aims of education comprise philosophical dispositions toward educational functioning.
 Educational aims only provide a broad framework of what should be put into the
education programme.
 They establish the philosophy that will guide the teaching programme in the schools.
 Educational aims also express the kind of values society generally expects from those
who benefit from education.
Four main dimensions of aims that guide schooling;
i) Intellectual dimension: This dimension deals issues of the acquisition of knowledge,
comprehension of knowledge and love and desire for knowledge.
ii) Social dimension: education aims at providing and promoting person to person interaction
person to world interaction, and person to self-interaction. Developing physical and emotional
aspect of an individual that help them adapt in the society.
iii) Personal dimension: aims of education should provide guidance to planners so that they can
in turn plan for experiences which can enhance skills and knowledge so that they become self
reliant and adaptable for self- actualization.
iv) Productive dimension: Aims should provide guidelines to the school system so that these
systems can organize the types of educational encounters that will help the individual to become
a productive member in the society.

ii. Goals
A curriculum goal is a purpose or end stated in general terms without criteria of achievement for
example students will demonstrate responsible behavior as citizens of our school, community,
state, nation and world.
Goals delimit educational activities so that particular ends or purposes are achieved.

Goals are statements of end points or outcomes of education – i.e. statements of purpose.

Goals are derived from various aims and thus provide teachers and curriculum decision makers
with broad statements of what they should accomplish in terms of student learning as a result of
a particular subject or educational program.

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Whereas aims provide guidance as to direction they do not indicate the actual destination itself,
but goals does.
Characteristics of curriculum goals
 They relate to the educational aims and philosophy
 They are programmatic. Although they address one or more areas of curriculum, they
also do not delineate the specific courses or specific items of content.
 They refer to the accomplishments of groups (all students, most students) rather than the
achievement of individual.
 They are broad enough to lead specific curriculum objectives

2.2. National goals of education in Kenya

This are general statements of achievement of education in Kenya as forwarded by the Ominde
Commission in 1963 and revised to suit succeeding curricular. This statements drive the school
curriculum in Kenya. Education in Kenya should
1. Promote nationalism, Foster patriotism and promote national unity.
2. Promote socio, economic, technological an industrial needs for national development
3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment
4. Promote sound moral and religious values
5. Promote social equity and responsibility
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied culture
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other nations.
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection.
Importance of Goals of Education
Goals help both the curriculum planner and the teacher in decision – making in various ways.
i) To select the general programme content.
ii) To decide on relevant subject areas for the courses already identified for realizing the
broad aims of education.
iii) To decide on specific subject content, experiences and related exposures in a subject
area so as to promote the understanding of that subject at a relevant level of the
school system e.g. form 2 English.

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 iv) To decide on specific instructional experiences for a single lesson or through other
exposures within the framework of the school timetable.

Curriculum objectives
These are statements that describe the desired outcome of instruction of the curriculum, a unit, a
lesson or a learning activity. These are specific statements setting measurable expectations for
what learners should know and be able to do.
These describe designed achievement within a short time either in terms of:
 Learning outcomes-(what learners are expected to learn)
 Products or performance-what learners will produce as a result of the learning activity or
 Process- describing the learning focus or the learning activity
They are more specific statements of achievement derived from the curriculum aims. These are
though it does not specify the [Link] achievements or actions.
Within the context of educational aims and goals, objectives are formulated. They indicate in
more specific terms the outcomes of the curriculum or project being considered.
By the end of early years of education, the learner should be able to
 Communicate appropriately using verbal and non-verbal modes in a variety of contexts.
 Demonstrate basic literacy and numeracy skills in learning.
 Apply digital literacy skills for learning and enjoyment.
 Apply creative and critical thinking skills in problem solving
Aims are concerned with purpose whereas objectives are concerned with achievement
Curriculum objectives may be for particular course of study/subject, term or lesson. A
meaningful objective is one that communicates effectively to the reader the instructional intent or
behavior of the objective as well as specific learning outcomes.
Such objectives must be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time bound. Objectives
describe the tasks to be achieved within a short span of time for example one term, end of topic
or end of lesson.
A behavioral objective describes a measurable outcome for a task in terms of observable
behavior expected of student after instruction.

Characteristics of curriculum objectives

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  Written in performance or behavioral terms- should be measurable (stated in observable
learner behavior)
 Be very specific-Infer or have a precise degree of accuracy,
 within limited time duration
 Be achievable/attainable and realistic
 Provide conditions under which the performance will take place.

Determinants of Educational Objectives

1) The Contemporary Society

This comprises the demands of culture, the general social set ups and lifestyle, including all the
social institutions. From all these we can determine the needs of the society.
The school owes its existence to the society, it is considered as the ultimate source of ideas for
the curriculum.
We look at the issues and problems facing the society; environmental issues, cultural issues,
social economic issues and all these are included in the curriculum.

2) The Local Environment

The immediate environment of schools, including the pupils’ homes will provide us with further
ideas for possible objectives.
Knowledge of the socio-economic and physical situation of school surroundings, and the attitude
towards education of the pupil’s sub-culture can help us to determine the objectives of education.

3) The Learner
Societal needs should not blind us to the individuality of the pupils.
Pupils are independent entities with their own needs, interests and aspirations which must receive
special attention when we are formulating objectives.

4) The School Itself

Curriculum implementation is a controlled interaction between students, teachers, time, space,
facilities, materials and equipment, content and learning activities.
All these will have some influence on objectives and have therefore to be considered while

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formulating objectives.
The school climate, the attitude of the teachers, the attitudes of the learners and their relationship
between them could exert significant influence on the curriculum.
Bound up in all this, is the teacher’s own philosophy of education; what he holds as priorities in
education.
5) Knowledge
There is influx of knowledge and it is only fair that we look at the school disciplines or the
nature of subject matter and the types of learning that can arise from a study of the subject
matter.
Meaningful objectives are formulated in light of the available knowledge because to achieve any
objective there must be positive interaction between the learner and some kind of knowledge.
It is necessary to avoid formulating objectives which cannot be achieved because of the absence
of appropriate knowledge content.
It is also here that we need advice of the subject specialist on the value and application of
knowledge in their subject areas.

6) Philosophy
To select a few but highly important and consistent objectives, it is necessary to screen further
heterogeneous collection of objectives in order to eliminate those that are unimportant and
contradictory.
The education and social philosophy of the community can serve as a useful screen for e.g. when
we talk of good life or a good society there are values which go with such life or society.
Only those objectives that address such values will stand. The rest will have to be excluded.

7) Psychology
The psychology of learning which includes theories both of learning and child development form
an important screen or source for selecting objectives.
Educational objectives are educational ends or results to be achieved through learning, so those
ends must be in conformity with conditions intrinsic in learning if at all they are going to be
achievable and worthwhile.

2.3. Component II: Curriculum Content or Subject Matter.

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Content as includes those facts, observations, ideas, concepts, data, perceptions generalizations,
principles, and solutions that learners experience, acquire and those they construct in formal
learning. The word content is used interchangeably with terms such as subject matter,
knowledge, concepts, and ideas.

The question what? Shall be included for purposes of learning are what is termed as the
appropriate content, knowledge, theories all the information to be learned.

2.4. Component III : Curriculum experience/learning experience.

It answers the question of ‘How’ what instructional strategies will be employed to achieve the
objectives set. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of
the content in order to produce an outcome.

o Instructional strategies and methods

o Resources and
o Activities
These would convert the written curriculum to instruction.
Mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.

2.5. Component IV: Curriculum Evaluation

This is the process of measuring and judging the extent to which the planned courses, programs,
learning activities and opportunies as expressed in the formal curriculum actually produce the
expected results.

They are interested in conducting evaluation to determine whether the expected or the planned
for has occurred or is occurring in relation to the intended. Evaluation focuses on discovering
whether the curriculum as designed, developed, and implanted is producing or can produce the
desired results. This process can enable decisions to be made about improvements and future
progress.

Evaluation serves to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum before
implementation and the effectiveness of its delivery after implementation.

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Evaluation is a process or cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather data that
will enable them to decide whether to accept, change, or eliminate something. i.e. the curriculum
in general or an educational text book in particular. The purpose of gathering such data about
strengths and weaknesses is to allow curriculurists to either revise, compare, maintain, or
discontinue their actions and programs.

Evaluation enables them to make decisions, to draw conclusions and to furnish data that will
support their decisions regarding curriculum matters.

Functions of Evaluation in Education

1. To diagnose
2. To revise curricular
3. To compare
4. To anticipate educational needs
5. To determine if objectives have been achieved.

Approaches to Curriculum Evaluation

1. Scientific & humanistic approach
2. Intrinsic & pay-off evaluation
3. Formative & summative evaluation

a) Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation encompasses those activities undertaken to improve an existing program.

This is the evaluation which guides and promotes the development of the programme. It takes
place at a number of specified points during the curriculum development process. The process of
formative evaluation has flexibility. Formative evaluation allows the teacher and others involved
in the evaluation not only to determine what intended effects are occurring, but also to record
and examine the presence of unintended effects. It is the process of feedback and adjustments
and thus keeps the curriculum development process “open.”

b) Summative Evaluation.

This type of evaluation obtains evidence of the “summed” effects of various components or units
in a particular curriculum. It aims at getting the “total” picture of the quality of the produced
curriculum. It is usually undertaken after the project has been completely developed and after it
has been implemented school wide. It focuses on the effectiveness of the total curriculum or the
total course within the curriculum.

Summative evaluation’s major purpose is to enable the involved parties to draw conclusions
about how well the curriculum or particular curriculum unit

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Principles for Guiding Curriculum Development Practice:

Curriculum development is a local, regional, or state/provincial level process

Successful practice in the classroom is inextricably linked to curriculum
development-the everyday decisions about both what to teach and how to teach.

Tyler ( 1949 ) introduced a disciplined approach to instruction. T BEFORE THEN, Narrow preoccupations
with discrete and abstract elements of the curriculum (e.g., objectives, teaching methods, and
measurement) were widely accepted.

Goodlad ( 1958 ) who called for a comprehensive and coherent framework for curriculum [Link]
what is now surely be called curriculum theory

3. STRUCTURE OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum as a discipline has its own content and methods or process of inquiry (Brunner,
1960).
As a discipline curriculum has three main sets that form its structure; these are:

i. The context of the curriculum -setting in which the curriculum is designed

ii. The design of the curriculum - ways in which to arrange curriculum components.
iii. Curriculum development- process to creat positive improvements in educational
system

3.1. Curriculum Context

This refers to the curriculum milieu or the physical, economic and social setting in which the
curriculum is designed, developed and implemented (Shiundu and Omulando 1992) so as to
achieve certain goals of education which must correspond to the ends or desires of the society.
The context of the curriculum may be:
 Social / cultural
 Political
 Economic
 Philosophical
 Historical
 Psychological

Thus the many topics taught in various curriculum courses in colleges and schools of education such as
sources of curriculum decisions, factors affecting curriculum development, causes of curriculum
change, and the need for curriculum and so on, constitute the curriculum context.

3.2. CURRICULUM DESIGN

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After the curriculum planner has formulated the objectives for the Programme and selected the
learning experiences there is need to organize these experiences, so that learning can take place
effectively.

The term Curriculum Design is used to describe the purposeful, deliberate and systematic organization
of curriculum. It refers to the manner in which the various elements of the curriculum are stated. It is
aspects like the structure, pattern or organization of the curriculum. In other words, curriculum designs
are more or less the structure or arrangements of the school programme.

Taba (1964), defines a curriculum design as a statement which identifies the element of the
curriculum, states what their relationships are to each other and indicates the principles of
organization and the requirements of that organization for the administrative conditions under
which it is to operate.

The design identifies the elements of a curriculum, states what relationship they have between each
other and indicates the principles of organization and the requirements of the organization. It also states
the administrative conditions under which it is to operate.

Curriculum design is a proposal that indicates the basis for selection and organization of knowledge
concepts and skills (Stratemeyer, 1957).

Malusu (1997) states that, design is the way in which the curricular elements namely, the objectives,
learning experiences, teaching learning strategies, resources and evaluation procedures have been
selected and organized in order to facilitate learning.

Stratemeyer (1957) argues that any curriculum design stems from a set of values, fundamental beliefs
and cultural principles relating to the kind of person or citizen which the society wants to produce and
what the society wants to develop in the learner.

Johnson identified three notions of curriculum design as;

 An arrangement of selected and ordered learning outcomes intended to be achieved
through instruction,
 an arrangement of selected and ordered learning experiences to be provided in an
instructional situation,
 a scheme for planning and providing learning experiences. (Johnson. Jr, 1969)
Curriculum design operates on many levels. Design decisions at one level must be compatible
with those at the other levels.
Curriculum design requires compromises. The challenge is to come up with a curriculum that
works well—perfection is not its aim. In developing a design that meets complex specifications,
trade-offs inevitably have to be made among benefits, costs, constraints, and risks.
Curriculum design has stages. Curriculum design is a systematic way of going about planning
instruction, even though it does not consist of some inflexible set of steps to be followed in strict
order. Curriculum decisions made at one stage are not independent of decisions made at other

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 stages, and so the curriculum-design process tends to be iterative, various stages being returned
to for reconsideration and possible modification. But recognizing the different tasks and
problems at each stage is important in making the process work. The stages are;
 establishing curriculum-design specifications;
 conceptualizing a curriculum design;
 developing a curriculum design;
 refining a curriculum design.

3.3. PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

Curriculum design involves some key principles which operate in tension with each other.

a. Balance –curriculum should Promotes intellectual, moral, spiritual, aesthetic, creative, emotional
and physical development as equally. Some major areas of balance include
 Breadth in terms of learning experience, all learners are provided with the opportunities
for a broad range of experiences in learning process. Their learning is planned and
organized in a manner that they learn and develop through a variety of contexts within
both the classroom and other aspects of school life
 Depth- There should be opportunities for learners to develop their full capacity for
different types of thinking and learning
 Scope refers to all types of educational experiences to engage students in learning -
Cognitive, affective, psychomotor learning (some might add the moral or spiritual
domain). According to Ralph Tyler, scope is consisting of all the content, topics, learning
experiences and organizing threads comprising the educational plan.

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  personalization and choice- Catering for learner differences; The curriculum should
respond to individual needs and support particular aptitudes and talents. It should give
each child and young person increasing opportunities for exercising responsible personal
choice as they move thorough their school career.
 Challenge and enjoyment-At all stages, learners of all aptitudes and abilities should
experience an appropriate level of challenge, to enable each individual to achieve
his or her potential.
 Fostering general abilities, skills and Knowledge
 joint venture- various experts are involved like educational psychologists, educational
technologists, curriculum specialists, evaluation specialists, teachers, subject matter
experts etc. seek the proper involvement of the teachers in the construction and
development of school curriculum

b. Progression-– Focuses on progression by carefully sequencing knowledge; provides clarity

about what “getting better” at the subject means. Forward-looking asks for the inclusion of
those topics, content and learning experiences that may prove helpful to the students in leading
their future life in a proper way.

 Each stage should be built upon earlier knowledge and achievements. Children
should be able to progress at a rate which meets their needs and aptitudes, and
keep options open so that routes are not closed off too early.
 Vertically Integrated and forward-looking The order or arrangement in which the
content should be taught for the best learning (building on past knowledge)
throughout the course. Educators must decide the sequence before a course begins
to be effective. There should be vertical relationship among the elements to
provide continuous and cumulative learning.
 Contents and experiences are arranged in hierarchical manner where the basis can
either be logic of the subject matter or on the developmental patterns of growth of
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Vertical curriculum links
knowledge from one lesson to the next across a program of study. It establishes
skills and knowledge which are used and further developed across a whole
program of study. In this way, basic skills and knowledge are both developed and
reinforced as other elements are introduced into study. This method is structured
and progressive, focusing on building to advanced levels of knowledge.

c. Sequence
 Simple to Complex Learning – content & experiences are organized from simple to
complex, concrete to abstract, easy to difficult.
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  Prerequisite Learning- there are fundamental things to be learned ahead.
 Whole to Part Learning – overview before the specific content or topics.
 Chronological learning – the order of events is made as a basis of sequencing the content
and experiences. (Smith, Stanley and Shore, 1957).
 Continuity- Is vertical repetition of curriculum components e.g. Reading skills or crucial
concepts and skills must be experienced repeatedly to be further developed.

d. Appropriate – Looks to avoid making unreasonable demands by matching level of

challenge to a pupil’s current level of maturity/knowledge.

i. Suitability to the age and mental level of the children

 What is to be given to the children in the form of learning experiences at a
particular age and grade level should suit their age and mental development
 The capacity for understanding, how children grow with age. The content of the
study in any subject should be formed to suit their mental ability.
ii. According to the specific interests of students
 Children will be able to learn better in fields where they have special tastes and
inclination of the mind.
 It is also found that at different stages of age groups, children have different
interest patterns.
 Interests of children also change according to circumstances and situations.
 Therefore learning experiences should be designed to suit the interests and tastes
of the age group of students.
iii. challenge and content enjoyment learners are meant to find their learning process as
challenging, attractive and motivating (Halpern, 1998). This is achieved when the
curriculum encourages high aspirations and ambitions for all learners despite their
intelligence differences. In addition, learners are made to experience a suitable level
of challenge that enables them to achieve their potential. provides maximum
opportunity to the child for practical work with the help of concrete things.
e. Coherence
 There should be a clear link between the different aspects of children and young
people learning, including opportunities for extended activities which draw different
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 strands of learning together. Integration refers to linking all types of knowledge and
experiences contained within the curriculum plan (Ornstein & Hunkins,
2014).Emphasis is on horizontal relationships, everything is integrated and
interconnected. Life is a series of emerging themes. This is the essence of integration
in the curriculum design. Organization is drawn from the world themes from real life
concerns. Subject matter content or disciplined content lines are erased and isolation
is eliminated.

 Makes explicit connections and links between the different subjects/experiences

encountered. allows a combination of the learner’s different aspects of learning activities
to form a coherent experience that enhances the achievement of the learning outcomes.
Rigorous – Seeks to develop intra-disciplinary habits of mind; the subject matter is taught
in a way that is faithful to its discipline.
 The curriculum should be environmentally centered-The content of the learning
experiences for children should be linked with the needs of the environment in which
they live.

f. Flexibility
• Instead of being rigid curriculum should show the sign of flexibility.
• The organization of the curriculum should be on the basis of individual differences as
every child is different from the other.
• Apart from this conditions of society go on changing, therefore, the curriculum must be
flexible enough to address the needs as aspirations of the society.
g. Relevant – Seeks to connect the valued outcomes of a curriculum to the pupils being
taught it;
 provides opportunities for pupils to make informed choices.
 Relevance allows learners to recognize the purpose of their learning and related
activities.
 It is put in place to ensure that learners see the value of what they are learning and its
relevance to present and future lives.
 the knowledge and skills to be learnt should be determined by the activities deemed
suitable for the age-group concerned.
 Target oriented- To ensure that learners will spend their time and effort
meaningfully and for maximum benefits, there must be a plan for them to work
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 according to specific Learning Targets and Objectives which are geared towards
the Aims and Objectives of the school curriculum.
 Focused – Seeks to keep the curriculum manageable by teaching the most
important knowledge; identifies the big ideas or key concepts within a subject. the
subjects are correlated with each other.
h. Comprehensive curriculum
 Have breadth in terms of learning experience. Under this principle, all learners are
provided with the opportunities for a broad range of experiences in learning process
 The curriculum must have necessary details. List of topics to be covered does not solve
the purpose.
 Both teachers and students should know clearly what is expected of them, what is the
beginning and what is the end of the topic for the particular class.
 Material, aids, activities, life situations etc. should be listed in the curriculum.
Factors that influence curriculum design.

1. Consider the content's intellectual dimension. This is perhaps curriculum's most commonly
thought of dimension. The content selected should stimulate students' intellectual development.

2. Consider the content's emotional dimension. We know much less about this dimension, but
we are obtaining a better understanding of it as the affective domain of knowledge.

3. Consider the content's social dimension. The content selected should contribute to students'
social development and stress human relations.

4. Consider the content's physical dimension. commonly referred to as the psychomotor domain
of knowledge. Content should be selected to develop physical skills and allow students to
become more physically self-aware.

5. Consider the content's aesthetic dimension. People have an aesthetic dimension, yet we
currently have little knowledge of aesthetics' place in education.

6. Consider the content's transcendent or spiritual dimension, which most public schools
almost totally exclude from consideration. We tend to confuse this dimension with formal
religion. This content dimension does not directly relate to the rational. However, we need to
have content that causes students to reflect on the nature of their humanness and helps them
transcend their current levels of knowledge and action

18
7. Teacher characteristics. An effective teacher and curriculum planner must understand some
central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline he or she teaches and can also
create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.

8. Technology. Technology is broad and expensive and it can help with curriculum design.
Technology is simply just another tool for teachers. The best question a teacher could ask is what
tools will help me help my students? It’s all dependent upon the teacher if they choose to use to
use technology as an instructional aid or not.

9. Learner’s background. All children’s come from different cultures. There is an increasing
number of students that are from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Our multicultural
society is a key factor that is taken into consideration for curriculum design. Some factors of
diversity include religion, race, gender ethnicity, social economic status, age, and children with
different kinds of disabilities.

10. Classroom characteristics. Good classroom are not teacher dependent environment but
background rather independent students learning areas excellent instructional leaders provide
students with multiple opportunities to make choices and accept consequences of those choices.

11. Resources-books, teachers, equipment

SOURCES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

The sources of curriculum design are the same as a person’s philosophy. How a person views
the world and the experiences they have had impacts how they design and conceptualize
curriculum.

Science as a source; Some see curriculum design as a scientific process and they focus on quantifying
the elements of the curriculum. This group often focus on thinking strategies and elements of cognitive
psychology.
 Based on the scientific method; the design contains observable and quantifiable elements.,
 Priority, Problem solving & thinking strategies.
 Emphasizes learning how to learn because the knowledge increase so rapidly, the only
constant seems to be the procedures by which we process knowledge.

Society as a source; Draw ideas from analysis of the social situation, Operates within social,
economic and political contexts,

Curriculum designers must notice the role that society will play in their curricular ideas and
analyze the social situation.

Designers should not ignore the diversity of human life as seen in culture, ethnicity and
social class. School is an agent of society

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  Address Students’ unique needs
 curriculum design should include collaboration among diverse individuals and groups.
 Political issues such as: No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top are still being used
and revised in curriculum.,
 we must consider current & future society.
 curriculum serves underrepresented groups such as indigenous people, people of color,
women and homosexuals.

Moral Doctrine as a source; considering the relationship between knowledge and people’s
spirituality. It’s guided by religious texts.
Questions about the nature of the world, the purpose of life, what it means to be human and
knowledgeable.
Emphasis development of empathy and compassion, considering and promoting the welfare of
others, as well as welcome different viewpoints.
Moral doctrine allow for a blending of truth, faith, knowledge, ethics, thought, and action.
Morals are often derived from what people consider to be spiritual authorities such as the Bible.
For this source, lasting truth and inequality in regards to the value of different subjects is part of
adhering to this source.
 ~Subjects follow a hierarchy system
 ~Knowledge and spirituality
 ~Develop empathy, insight, compassion.
 ~William Pinar felt that viewing curriculum as religious text may allow for a blending of
truth, faith, knowledge, ethics, thought, and action.

Knowledge as a source

This is subject centered view in which a teacher needs to decide what knowledge is most
valuable. Knowledge should be structured as a discipline with clear boundaries. As such,
interdisciplinary approach do not work with this view.
Celebrates Plato's academic views Addresses the following questions “
 What knowledge is of most worth?
 For whom is this knowledge of value?
 Is there any knowledge that must be possessed by the majority?
 What intellectual skills must be taught?
 Challenges: Knowledge is exploding exponentially, Why?: Knowledge should be a
discipline, have a particular structure and methods.

Learner as a source. Curriculum derived from our knowledge of students. How do they learn,
form attitudes, generate interest, develop values. Seeks to empower Students and foster their
individual uniqueness. Draw ideas from psychological foundations, especially how minds create

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meaning. Why? Every learner is unique, educational environment physically affect brain
development.

This source influences curriculum design by stressing student-centered learning and activities.
Students are not passive objects but active individuals who participate in their learning. The
student interacts with the curriculum rather than is feed the curriculum.
Political and economic policy makers. The most up to date pronouncements by head of state,
ministers, assistance ministers, governors the information is contained in many government
thinking on many matters. Reports of proceedings of the country parliaments which comes out
daily when parliament is in session on the most informative sources regarding the contribution of
the ordinary citizen on the newspapers, magazines circulating in the country. Reports on the
circulars from the national ministry of education. Reports from hoc national commissions and
committees such as Ominde Commission, Gachathi reports, Bessy reports .the schools
themselves provide the most accurate, up to date and valuable information.

Purposes of Curriculum Design

 Enables the designers to focus on goals when designing a programme.

 Reduces stress and enhances confidence in providing education to learners.
 Ensures uniformity in education across the nation.
 Allows room for comparison with others.
 Ensures uniformity in evaluation and accuracy in monitoring programme success.

PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION

Curriculum organization is the process to change the content into students learning
experiences intentionally, and make learning experiences sequential, integral, successive after
curriculum ideology has been determined, curriculum goal set, curriculum goal been selected.

Curriculum organization of the curriculum content means the process of selecting curriculum
elements from the subject, the current social life and the students’ experience, then designing the
selected elements appropriately so they can form the curriculum structure and type.

Patterns of curriculum are also referred to as curriculum design; which refers to the
arrangement of the elements of a curriculum into a substantive entity.

Those components or elements that are arranged in curriculum designs are: Aims, goals and
objectives, Subject matter, Learning experiences and Evaluation approaches

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Curriculum components can be organized in numerous ways. However, all curriculum designs
are modifications and/ or integrations of three basic design types:

1) Subject centered designs

2) Learner centered designs
3) Problem centered designs

1. Subject centered designs

This group of designs revolve around the teaching of an established content that has been derived
from the accumulated wisdom of the academic disciplines. This type of curriculum design tends
to focus on the subject, rather than the student

This subject centered designs category comprises several examples, i.e.

 Subject design
 Discipline designs
 Broad fields design integrated design
 Correlational designs

i) Subject design

Subject design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline, such as mathematics,
literature or biology. The curriculum is organized according to how knowledge has been
developed in the various subject areas e.g. History, Geography, English, and Mathematics.

It is the oldest school design and the best known to both teachers and lay people, because this is
what has been employed over years in educating them.

This design is based on a belief that what makes humans unique and distinctive is their intellect;
the searching for and the attainment of knowledge are the natural fulfillment to that intellect.
Emphasis is on acquisition of matter knowledge and content is a structured sequence, such as
mathematics or history.

In the subject matter design, the curriculum is based on the classification and organization of
subjects matter into discrete groups called subjects. Organized according to how knowledge has
been developed in the various subject areas e.g. History, Geography, English, and Mathematics.

Strengths.

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Introduces students to essential knowledge of society. Easy to deliver, textbook and materials
commercially available. The subjects’ core consists of a number of subjects, logically organized
and taught [Link] sciences, humanities and technicals.

It is popular because it corresponds to textbook treatment and how teachers are trained as subject
specialists.

Weaknesses

 Disempowers students to choose the content which is most meaningful to them

 Presented without consideration of context
 Fails to foster social, psychological, & physical development
 Neglects students’ needs, interest and experiences.
 Foster students’ passivity

ii. Discipline Designs

This approach to organizing the curriculum is essentially war phenomenon, gaining greatest
support in the 1960s, predicts the inherent organization of content, as the subject design,
disciplines design emphasis the role played by the those called academic disciplines. These can,
it is claimed, be in terms of knowledge, skills and values.

Focus on the academic disciplines. Students would approach history as a historian would.
Investigate biological topics by following procedures used by biologists.

Discipline designs stress on understanding the conceptual structures and processes of the
disciplines. To assist students to acquire knowledge, skills and values of academic disciplines,
numerous curriculum projects were developed in 1960s and 1970s. Among the more well-known
are Biological sciences curriculum (BSCS), High School Geography Education Project
(HSGP), Australian Science Education Project (ASEP), School Mathematics Study Group
(SMSG) and Individualized Science Instruction System. The principal thrust was understanding
structure of disciplines, that is, the relationship between the key, concepts and principals as well
as integration of skills and values associated with that discipline.

Strength: Students master the content areas & are able to independently continue their learning.

Weaknesses: A lot of knowledge cannot be classified as “disciplined”. E.g. aesthetics,

humanism, personal-social living.

iii) Broad fields’ designs

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The broad fields design, another variation of the subject centered design, appeared as an effort to
correct the fragmentation and compartmentalization caused by the subject design. This design
permits the melding of the two or more related subjects into a single broad or fused field of
study. It is what we term today as integrated studies e.g. Integration of English literature. One
reason for its continued popularity is that it dissolves subject boundaries in ways that makes the
information more useful and meaningful to the pupils. It allows the teacher to have more
flexibility in choosing content. By integrating separate subjects, it enables, learners to see
relationships among the various subjects of the curriculum. E.g.

Languages which combine reading, writing, spelling, speaking and composition.

General science which combines physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy and geology.
Social studies which combines civics, history, geography, sociology, anthropology, social
psychology, economic and social ethics.
Mathematics which combines arithmetic, algebra and geometry. The design is common in the
Kenyan education system

Strength

 It’s an attempt to bring content into meaningful cluster

 It can meet students’ needs and interests and thereby furnish them with varied
experiences.
 The design allows for a meaningful integration of related content enabling learners to see
the relationships among various elements in the curriculum.
 It brings about some broad understanding of broad areas instead of narrow ones.
 It reduces the over repetition of knowledge.
 It prepares learners for changes i.e. learners can change with changing economies as one
can perform well in different areas because they have knowledge in several fields.
 Enables the learner to see the relationships among the various elements of the
curriculum.
 Easy curriculum supervision because there are not too many subjects to deal with.
 Makes the learner and knowledge gained more functional because a lot of elements from
various subjects are dealt with.
 Saves time on the school timetable as well as school resources.
 Teaching materials are readily available.

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 Weaknesses

 Lacks in-depth coverage of subject matter hence it is superficial- The content organized
after bringing different subjects together several subjects can be superficial,
 The content may still be fragmented per subject and therefore fail to relate to the actual
world of the learner. Does not take care of the learners interests and experiences.
 It’s not easy to produce a specialist in all subjects that form one cluster.
 Resources may not be easily available. Most text books are written on subject basis and
teachers are trained on subject – centered curriculum designs.
 The design does not account for psychological organizational by which learning takes
place. Stresses on goals of content coverage at the expense of cognitive or effective
processes.
 There is the danger that broad courses will turn into a passive overview of generalizations
offering little opportunity for active inquiry and learning.

iv) Correlation design

It is a design employed when separate subjects require some linkage in order to reduce
fragmentation of curricular content. Correlation is an attempt to eliminate the isolation and
compartmentalization of subjects without radically overhauling the subject curriculum. For
example a science teacher may collaborate with the social studies teacher by having students
write papers dealing with the history of some particular scientific theory. In correlated approach
subjects still maintain the boundaries

It’s in the middle of “Separate Subjects” and “Total Content Integration.” Attempts to identify
ways to relate subjects, but maintain their separate identities. Students in a chemistry course may
have a unit in math that deals with mathematics required to conduct an experiment Eg: (Science
and Mathematics) (Literature & History). For example, a Science teacher may collaborate with
the social studies teacher by having students write papers dealing with the history of some
particular scientific theory.

The core consists of a number of logically organized subjects or fields of knowledge some of
which are related. Topics in business studies, History and geography may be planned so that the
25
students can see the relationship. For example, the topic of Trade can be taught in the following
ways.

Geography: Types of trade

History: patterns of trade in Africa
Business Studies: the role of trade in the economies of respective countries. It

Strength:
 Innovative & Attractive
 Learners are made to see the relationship between subjects and relate them to normal life
situations.
 Subject matter from wider areas e.g. in general can be included.
 There is room for team teaching hence it enhances greater teacher cooperation.
 It can be designed to meet specific needs of particular learners.

Weaknesses:
 Time Consuming, Teachers often separate departments, Scheduling difficulties.
 Only essential or basic knowledge in each discipline is included hence scanty knowledge.
 May cause confusion among learners e.g. social studies in primary.
 Some teachers when using correlated approach may end up stressing more on their areas
of specialization than on other areas.

2. Learner Centered Designs

These are designs which lay emphasis on the development of the individual. Their organizational
patterns grow out of needs, interests and purposes of students. The learner is the focus of the
curriculum and his or her active participation in the learning process is the focus of these
designs.
The designs draw on the knowledge about human growth and development and on the theories of
learning.
Teacher domination of the learning process is minimized by allowing for freedom and active
learner involvement and creativity which are all important for human growth.
The concern is with creating curricula that are valuable to students, or where students are the
center or focus of the program. Weimer (2002) described five learner centered practice areas that
need to change to achieve learner – centered teaching;
o The function of the content teaching includes building a strong knowledge foundation and
to develop learning skills and learner self-awareness.
o The role of the instructor- facilitative
o The responsibility for learning- shifts from the instructor to the students
o The process and purpose or assessment -shift from only assigning grades to include
constructive feedback and to assist with improvement
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 o The balance of power.
The prototypes of learner centered designs are;
 child centered designs and
 activity designs/ Experience-Centered Design
 Romantic (Radical) Design
 Humanistic Design

i. Child-centered curriculum design

Revolves around student needs, interests and goals. It acknowledges that students are not
uniform but individuals, and therefore should not, in all cases, be subject to a standardized
curriculum. This approach aims to empower learners to shape their education through choices.
Differentiated instructional plans provide an opportunity to select assignments, teaching and
learning experiences, or activities. This form of curriculum design has been shown to engage and
motivate students.
Attending to students' needs and interests requires careful observation of students and faith that
they can articulate those needs and interests. Also, young students' interests must have
educational value. People with this view consider knowledge as an outgrowth of personal
experience.
According to Dewey The curriculum was organized around human impulses: the impulses to
socialize, construct, inquire, question, experiment, and express or create artistically
There are attempts to use child-centered design by way of negotiated curriculum, which
involves student-teacher negotiations regarding what content will address what interests.
Teachers and students participate in planning the unit, its purposes, the content focuses, the
activities, and even the materials to be used?
The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it can create pressure on the educator
to source materials specific to each student’s learning needs. This can be challenging due to
teaching time constraints. Balancing individual student interests with the institution’s required
outcomes could prove to be a daunting task.
ii. The Activity / Life Experience Design
This pattern of curriculum organization can be traced to the 18th century early childhood
educators like Rousseau and Pestalozzi. The need for this curriculum design was advanced in the
early 20th century by William Kilpatrick who was a student of Dewey. Taba (19620 advocated
for this design by stating that:
People learn only what they experience only that learning which is related to active purposes
and is rooted in experience translates itself into behaviour changes. Children learn best those
things that are attached to solving actual problems that help them in meeting real needs or that
connect with some active interest. Learning in its true sense is an active transaction.

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In the design; the structure of the curriculum is determined by the learners needs and interests
and not the adults needs and perception. The teachers task is to discover what the needs and
interests of the learner are and help the learner to select the most significant of those for study.
The curriculum cannot be planned. That it will take shape as teachers and students plan
together the goals to be pursued, the resources to be consisted, the activities to be carried out and
the assessment procedures to be followed.
It focuses on problem solving procedures for learning. Subjects and disciplines are viewed as
highly useful resources to solving problems. Learning activities and process objectives are
accorded more importance than any other component of the curriculum. The pedagogical
concepts associated with activity design include: life experience units, projects, social
enterprises, field trips and centers of interest.
They differ from child-centered designs in that children's needs and interests cannot be
anticipated; therefore, a curriculum framework cannot be planned for all children. The notion
that a curriculum cannot be preplanned, that everything must be done "on the spot" as a teacher
reacts to each child, makes experienced-center de-sign almost impossible to implement
The belief is that free school environment will stimulate all students to excel. It does not demand
that they think and study in particular ways in order to succeed. The designs potential
experiences for s students to consider. Students are empowered to shape their own learning
within the context furnished by the teacher.

Characteristics

1. The teacher implementing this design should discover what the interests of the
students are and help them discover the most important ones
2. Pre-planning of the curriculum is not possible and is even undesirable .the teacher
should know the students first.
3. Co-operative planning is essential for this [Link] is referred to as teacher pupil
planning
4. The learners are encouraged to use problem solving methods and to set their own
tasks.
5. The design discourages rigid scheduling; teachers help learners to fashion their study
as ideas occur and interest develop.
6. In the orthodox method all adult interference is eliminated.

Advantages
 Learner motivation is high and intrinsic
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  Facts, concepts, skills and processes are learnt by pupils because they are important to
them and not because they are required to.
 Learning is real and meaningful to the learner as well as relevant.
 Caters for individual differences of the learner.
 The problem solving activities in this design provides students with process skills they
will need to cope effectively with life outside school.

Disadvantages
A curriculum based on students felt needs and interests cannot possibly provide an adequate
preparation for life. Many things essential for effective functioning in the modern world will
certainly be omitted if students are allowed to exclude from their curriculum anything that does
not immediately interests them.
 It lacks a definite horizontal structure i.e. no curriculum organizing principle exists since
it depends on individual learners.
 It lacks continuity ( or sequence) because student needs and interests are dynamic and
change even for an individual learner.
 It demands for an extraordinarily competent teacher.
 It is not possible to develop specialists in the specific subjects.
 It makes it difficult to derive common educational goals.
 Textbooks and other teaching materials organized by separate subject areas are not
geared to its requirements and therefore cannot be useful.
 The needs and the interest of the learner may not be valid or lasting
 A curriculum based on the needs and interests of the learner cannot adequately provide
good preparation for life.
 It presents difficulty in timetabling the various activities for different classes and
students.

iii. Romantic (Radical) Design.

Students must learn ways of engaging in a critique of knowledge. Learning is reflective, it is not
externally imposed by someone in power. Radicals view society as deeply flawed & believe that
schools used curriculum to control & indoctrinate, not to educate & emancipate. Students must
accept responsibility for educating themselves & demand freedom

iv. Humanistic Design.

Emphasizes human potential, empowering students by actively involving the in their own
growth. Teachers must permit students to feel, value, grow. Allow individuals to become full
functioning persons. Emphasis on the discipline

29
Teacher provide environments that encourages genuineness, empathy, & respect. Students
approach problems with flexibility & intelligence, work cooperatively but do not need other’s
approval. Education should address pleasure and desire.

Curriculum should elicit emotion. Abraham Maslow's concept of self-actualization heavily

influenced humanistic design. Maslow listed the characteristics of a self-actualized person:
(1) accepting of self, others, and nature;
(2) spontaneous, simple, and natural;
(3) problem-oriented;
(4) open to experiences beyond the ordinary;
(5) empathetic and sympathetic to-ward the less fortunate;
(6) sophisticated in interpersonal relations;
(7) favoring democratic decision making; and
(8) possessing a philosophical sense of humor.
Some educators think that their humanistic designs will have students attain self-actualization as
an end product.
Carl Rogers's advocates self-directed learning, in which students draw on their own resources
to improve self-understanding and guide their own behavior. Educators should provide an
environment that encourages genuineness, empathy, and respect for self and others.
Individuals able to initiate action and take responsibility are capable of intelligent choice and
self-direction. Rogers stressed on knowledge relevant to problem solving. Classroom questions
foster learning and deep thinking. The quest is collaborative and the inquiries multidisciplinary.

Mistakes are accepted as part of the learning process. Conclusions are regarded as temporary.
Students approach problems with flexibility and intelligence; they work cooperatively but do not
need others' approval.

3. The Problem Centered Designs

These have their basis in contemporary problems to the society. Focuses on real-life problems of
individuals and society. They depend on the daily life situations, which may be social, economic
or political. Problem centered curriculum designs are organized to reinforce cultural traditions
and also to address those community and societal needs that are currently unmet
Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how to look at a problem and
formulate a solution. Considered an authentic form of learning because students are exposed to
real-life issues, this model helps students develop skills that are transferable to the real world.
Problem-centered curriculum design has been shown to increase the relevance of the curriculum
and encourages creativity, innovation and collaboration in the classroom. The drawback to this
format is that it does not always consider individual learning styles.

30
In Kenya for example, some of the problem that may determine this kind of curriculum may
include HIV/AIDS, pollution, terrorism, corruption, cattle rustling, road carnage, drug and
child abuse, tribalism domestic violence etc.
This design attempts to overcome the weaknesses of the subject design and at the same time
avoids the disadvantages of the activities / experience design. According to Taba (1962)
organizing curriculum around the activities of mankind will not only bring about a needed
unification of knowledge, but will also permit such a curriculum to be of maximum value to
students day-by-day life, as well as to prepare them for participation in a culture.
Content of such a design will cut across subjects because they are selected on account of their
relevance. They are grouped into two.
I. Life-Situations Designs or Areas of Living Design
II. Reconstructionist Design:
i. Life-Situations Designs/Areas of Living Design
The areas of living designs can be traced back to the 19th century and Herbert Spencers (1885)
essay. What knowledge is of most worth?
Spencer curriculum for complete living proposed that the curriculum prepares people to function
effectively in five basic areas common to all societies. Spencer' s curriculum emphasized
activities that
(1) sustain life- direct self-preservation
(2) enhance life,- indirect self-preservation (such as food and shelter)
(3) aid in rearing children, - parenthood
(4) maintain the individuals social and political relations- citizenship
(5) enhance leisure, tasks, and feelings- leisure activities
Focus on problem-solving procedures. The content is organized in ways that allow students to
clearly view problem areas. Uses learner’s past and present experiences to get them to analyze
the basic aspects of living and starting point: Student’s existing concerns, society’s pressing
problems and Weaknesses:

Advantages
 It presents subject matter in an integrated manner cutting across the separate subjects and
focusing on the related categories of social life.
 It encourages problem solving procedures for learning.

31
  It presents subject matter in a relevant form i.e. content used in the solution of real life
problems rather than for its own sake.
 It presents content in a functional form i.e. it provides students with learning that is
directly applicable to future life situation.
 It is intrinsically motivational to students because they are learning about what concerns
them most; the facts and processes of their own existence in the real world.
Disadvantages
 It is difficult to determine the scope and sequence of the areas of living.
 It lacks integration and continuity because one unit developed around separate areas of
living can be so discrete that they result in fragmentation like that of the subject design.
 It does not provide an adequate exposure to the cultural heritage.
 It has the tendency to indoctrinate the youth into existing conditions and thereby
perpetuating the status quo.
 Teachers are not prepared with this kind of design.
 Textbooks and other learning materials needed for the design are not readily available.
 Parents and colleges are not ready to accept the departure from the tradition of subject
design because it is a conventionally accepted way of presenting content.

Reconstructionist Design

Provide students with learning requisite for altering social, economic and political realities
Curriculum should foster social action, aimed at reconstructing society.

Encourages industrial & political changes. Students should be involved in creating a more
equitable society. This type of curriculum design was supposed to promote active learning and
develop a significance relationship between life and learning.

The term “core” is used in different ways. In some cases, the term like “common learning,”
“unified studies” and “basic education” have been used to refer to the core -curriculum that is
essential and is therefore a basic requirement for all [Link] may refer to the compulsory
subjects as opposed to the electives. Contemporary- Problems core the core consists of a broad
preplanned problem area from which curriculum planners select learning experiences in terms of
psychological and social needs and interests of students. e.g. Social Education and ethics course
32
is one that takes care of the students’ needs aimed at helping them fit in the [Link] draws
content from a cross-section of other subjects like CRE, biology and from general knowledge.

Approaches To Curriculum Design

a. Structure oriented approach- this perspective is concerned with components of the

curriculum and their interrelationships.
b. Value-oriented approach – this perspective is concerned on the values issues that lie at
the hearts of both the hidden and stated curricular.
c. Content oriented approach – this perceptive is concerned primarily with specifying the
major sources that influence the selection and organization of the curriculum content as
follows.

 Child -centered curricular: those who espouse child- centered curricular argue that the
child is the beginning point, the determiner, and the shaper of the curriculum.
 Knowledge – centered curricular: Those who advocate a knowledge -centered curricular
argue that the disciplines or bodies of knowledge should be the primary determiners of
what is taught.
 Society -centered curricular: those who support this approach agree that the social order
be the starting point and the primary determiner of the curriculum.

d. Process – oriented approach: this approach classifies curricular processes and

[Link] should be organized on the principal of continuity, sequence and integration.
Process Designs Urge students to learn the “process of obtaining knowledge” E.g:
Biological procedures to learn biology, ethnographic procedures to study culture &
society

Strength: as a meaning maker, enables to analyze reality, create frameworks by which to

arrange derived knowledge.

Weaknesses: Difficult to analyze validity of students’ conclusion individually

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 Centralized Curriculum design pattern
Kenyan follows a centralized system of education where curriculum content is decided upon by
the ministry of education, science and technology (MOEST). The actual work of designing the
curriculum is done by Kenya Institute of curriculum Development (KICD).this centralized
system provides continuity and consistency between schools and also ensures funding is equally
allocated to provide all schools with the same facilities and equipment. The characteristic of
centralized curriculum designing include the following.
 The subject matter is decided upon centrally.
 Subject content evaluation instruments are developed centrally.
 Subjects to be offered by schools are determined centrally. School choose their
subjects from a given list
 All learners taking the subject write the same examination and are assessed in the
same skills, with adjustments made for students living with disabilities.
 Certification is centrally controlled.
 Generally, textbooks must be approved by the MOEST before any school uses these
books.
 Quality assurance and standards is put in place to monitor the learning and teaching
activities.
Advantages
i. It makes it easy to achieve national goal, since all school use the same documents.
ii. Learners can transfer from one school to another without being disadvantaged.
iii. Entry requirement for universities and colleges and colleges can be centrally determined
parity can be ensured.
iv. Communications to schools regarding academic requirement is centralized and hence easier
to deliver.
v. Learning materials can be mass produced, making them less expense for both producers and
consumers.
vi. Institutions can be adequately staffed because they draw from a national pool of expertise
and resources.

Disadvantages of centralized curriculum design.

i. The process takes a long process before the final document is produced.
ii. The design is insensitive for to the needs of some groups within the country
iii. It impedes curriculum change and innovation it restrains creativity and initiative on
the part of teachers and learners.

34
 iv. The centralized pattern tends to stress knowledge and certificate acquisition at the
expense of the development of attitudes and skills.
Decentralized curriculum design.
The decentralized curriculum design occurs when the local authorities or individual counties
draft their own curriculum.
Characteristics.
 Curriculum are limited to suite their needs needs.
 Curriculum content is determined by teachers’ liaison with parents Curriculum and
learning experiences are based on what is available.
 Curriculum content will vary from school to school, county to county.
 It is produced locally with each school or county having its own syllabus.
 Text books are not centrally approved
 Evaluation varies from school to school, county to county
Advantages of decentralized curriculum.
a) Relevance: the curriculum addresses the local needs. Students learn what is relevant to the
community.
b) Participation: the local community is directly involved in designing the curriculum.
c) Commitment: the system encourages creativity and initiative on the teacher.
d) Creativity: the system encourages creativity and initiative on the teacher.
e) Less time consuming: it takes less time to produce the curriculum than it would take when
centralized pattern is used.
Disadvantages
a) There is no guarantee that national goals will be achieved.
b) Learners cannot easily transfer from one school to another when families move.
c) There is generally the problem in developing or accessing teaching materials which, if
available are expensive to produce.
d) There may not be adequate expertise in the local community to help develop part of the
curriculum
CURRICULUM MODELS

35
A curriculum development model is a simple description of a curriculum development system. A
model is a simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in a diagrammatic form.
The purpose is to provide a structure in a diagrammatic form for explaining that variables that
constitute reality are as well as their interrelationship.
The Tyler Model.
Tyler (1949) emphasized the specific importance of a knowledge of the psychology of leaning in
generating educational objectives: He describes and analysis sources of objectives that come
from learners’ studies of contemporary life, academic subjects, philosophy and psychology.
Tyler presented that the curriculum should be dynamic a Programme under constant evaluation
and revision. This model gives special attention to planning phases. Its deductive for it proceeds
from the general (examining the needs of the society, for example) to the specific (specifying
instructional objectives. Tyler suggested four fundamental questions which need to be ensured if
the process of curriculum planning is to proceed.
a) What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?
b) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these questions?
c) How can these educational experiences be effectively be organized?
d) How can we determine whether these educational purposes are being attained?

From these question he come up with four simple step process by which curriculum is planned.
Step 1. Objectives- curriculum planners should identify general objectives by gathering data
from; the learners, contemporary life outside the school and subject matter.
After identifying the numerous general objective, the planner refines them by filtering them
through philosophical screen and psychological screen. Those objectives that pass through the
two screen become what are now popularly known as instructional objectives. These objectives
form the basis for selection and organization of learning experiences including assessing the
curriculum.
Step 2: Selection of learning experiences
Step 3: Organization of learning experiences
Step 4: Evaluation

Stating the Selection of learning

Objectives experience

Organization of
learning experiences
36
 Evaluation

Advantages
• It provides an easy to follow step by step guide to curriculum planning and development
• It begins with a set of clearly stated objectives that the teacher must plan tasks and work
towards achieving the specified outcomes.
• Its aims at students developing behaviour as their target teaching
Criticism
Governed by objectives
 Narrow interpreted objectivities ( Acceptance verbs)
 construction and time consuming of behavioral objectives
 Its linear step by step process which can be tedious
 Too rigid; curriculum is restricted to a constricted range of students skills and knowledge,
critical thinking, problem solving and value acquiring processes cannot be plainly
declared in behavioral objectives, the process need to follow the four steps.

Wheeler’s Model

Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead of a
linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. He argued that curriculum developers adopt a
cyclical process in which element are interrelated and interdependent and follows a cyclical
pattern. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed
back into the objectives and the goals, which influence other stages.

The phases include the selection of aims, goals and objectives, selection of learning experiences
to help achieve these aims, goals and objectives, selection of the content through which certain
types of experiences be offered, organizing and integration of learning experiences and content
with respect the teaching and learning process.

37
At the time of writing the objectives was gaining momentum, it curriculum outcomes with undue
emphasis on goals, from which specific objectives are to be devised, received little support from
classroom teachers or indeed from curriculum writers. Nevertheless his notion of cyclical
curriculum process, emphasizing the interdependence nature of curriculum elements, has stood
the test of time well.

Wheeler contends that:

• Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of
learning which yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these
ultimate goals as outcomes.
• Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum
planning. This results in the formulation of objectives at both an
enabling and a terminal level.
• Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which
determine that content.

Kerr’s Model

Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those in Wheeler’s and

Tyler’s models. However, Kerr divided the domains into four areas •
objectives, • knowledge, • evaluation, and • school learning experiences

1. Objectives. In Kerr’s model, a curriculum design should first focus on

the objectives to be reached. These objectives are derived from
school learning expediencies and knowledge and are divided into
three groups: affective, cognitive and psychomotor.

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 2. Knowledge. There are three elements needed to establish curriculum
knowledge. These are; unity, repetition and order. Unity is
establishing a connection with the field of knowledge. Repetition
means repeating of certain curriculum elements while order means
every continuous experience must be established on prior experience.

3. Evaluation. This is ensuring that objectives have been achieved. The

standards of evaluation contains objective feasibility, content and
methods suitability, students’ needs and achievement, as well as the
efficacy of teachers’ preparation.

4. School learning experiences. School learning experiences are

influenced by societal opportunities the school community, pupils and
teachers interrelationships, individual differences, teaching methods,
content and maturity of the learners. These experiences are evaluated
through tests, interviews, assessment and other reasonable methods.
Below is an illustration of the Kerr’s model.

1. Objectives 3. Evaluation

2. Knowledge 4. School learning

experiences

What you should note about the model is that:

• the four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly, and
• objectives are derived from school learning experiences and knowledge.
In Kerr’s model, objectives:
• are based on learning experiences and knowledge, societal needs and the requirements
of the disciplines;
• are divided into cognitive, psychomotor and effective domains; and
• give the standard on which evaluation is based.

The model further indicates that knowledge should be

39
 • organised,
• integrated,
• sequenced, and
• reinforced.
Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of information for use in making decisions about the
curriculum.
School learning experiences are influenced by societal opportunities, the school community,
pupil and teacher relationships, individual differences, teaching methods, content and the
maturity of the learners. These experiences are evaluated through tests, interviews, assessments
and other reasonable methods.

The Taba Model

Hilda Taba is the developer of the Taba Model of learning. This model is used to enhance the
thinking skills of students. Hilda Taba believed that there must be a process for evaluating
student achievement of content after the content standards have been established and
implemented. The main concept of this approach to curriculum development is that teachers
must be involved in the development of the curriculum. She suggested a dual consideration of
content (logical organization of the curriculum) and individual learner (psychological
organization of the curriculum). Taba claimed that all curricular are composed of fundamental,
elements. Curricular consists of some selection and organization of content; it implies of
manifest certain patterns of learning and teaching and including a program of evaluation of the
outcomes (Taba, 1962).
According to the Taba model Curriculum should be designed by the users of the program. She
proposed that the orderly way of developing curriculum would follow seven major sequential
steps.
1. Diagnosis of need. The teacher who is the curriculum designer starts the process by
identifying the needs of the students for whom curriculum is planned. For example,
majority of students are unable to think critically.
2. Formulation of Objectives. After the teacher has identified needs that require attention
he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of the content. The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or
content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but also the
validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be determined, i.e. the relevancy
and significance of content.

40
 4. Organization of content. A teacher cannot just select content, but must organize it in
some type sequence, taking into consideration the maturity level of the learners, their
academic achievement and the interests.
5. Selection of learning experiences. Content must be presented to the students and the
students must engaged with the [Link] this point, the teacher selects instructional
methods that will involve the content with the students.
6. Organizational of learning activities. Just as the content must be sequenced and
organized, so the learning activities. Often, the sequence of learning activities is
determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular students
whom he or she is teaching.
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation. The curriculum planner must determine just what
objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to
evaluate learning outcomes.
Strengths of using the Taba Model in the classroom:
 Simplifies the task of curriculum development by providing a recipe type approach. Its
very nature of the rational model provides its useful base for planning and devising
curricular.
 A Rational model provides a straight forward time efficient approach to meeting the
curricular task.
 Gifted students begin thinking of a concept, then develop a deeper into that concept
 Focuses on open-ended questions rather than right/wrong questions
 The open-endedness requires more abstract thinking, a benefit to our gifted students
 The questions and answers lend themselves to rich classroom discussion
 Easy to assess student learning
Limitations of using the Taba Model in the classroom:
 Can be difficult for non-gifted students to grasp
 Difficult for heterogeneous classrooms
 Works well for fiction and non-fiction, may be difficult to easily use in all subjects
Audrey and Nicholls Models
It emphasized the logical approach that covered to curriculum development, particularly where
the need for the new curricular emerged from changed situations. They argued that change
should be planned introduced on a rational and valid basis according to a logical process. They
refined the work of Tyler, Taba and Wheelers by emphasizing cyclical nature of the curriculum

41
process and the need of preliminary step- a situational analysis. The authors contend that before
the most obvious in the elements of curriculum process are undertaken the concept or situation in
which curriculum decisions should be taken requires detailed and serious consideration. Five
independent stages are needed for continuous curriculum process as seen below.
i) Situational analysis
ii) Section of objectives
iii) Selection and organization of content
iv) Selection and organization of methods
v) Evaluation
The inclusion of the situational analysis was to force curriculum developers in school to be more
responsive to the environmental and particularly to needs of the students.

Strengths
 Incorporates the advantages in the objective model, they also overcome many of the
latter’s disadvantages as well.
 They exhibit the strength derived from a logical sequential structure upon which
curricula may be devised. For example such models by emphasizing the role of aims,
goals and objectives, require the curriculum developer to have conceptualized the task
before proceeding. This enhances rational thinking with the probability that a more
effective curriculum will result.
 By employing situational analysis as the starting point, cyclical models provide a base
line data upon which effective objectives may be devised. The nature of cyclical model is
such that the various elements of curriculum are seen to be in continuous motion, able to
cope with new situations and consequently reacting to changing circumstances. The
model is flexible in that as the situation changes so corresponding changes are made to
subsequent elements of the [Link]. if a school is changed by influx of a large number
of students who are different from what existed before, then the situation upon which
upon which the existing curriculum was based has to be altered. The model demands a
revision of the new situation and subsequent changes to the other curriculum elements.
Weakness
 It’s possible for cyclical model to be ignored by developers because of its initial long
approach. As a model must begin somewhere, the cyclical model moves with a
situational analysis and then proceeds though the selective elements of curriculum.
 A second weakness arises for many people from apparently logical and sequential nature.
For many, cyclical models a little different from rational models and hence maintains a
weakness described above.

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  Third, it is time consuming - the manner in which the model is implemented may be
construed as a weakness. A fundamental problem in utilizing is the amount of time
available to undertake an effective situational analysis. Therefore, developers must use
numerous techniques about the learning situation. This can become time consuming and
classroom teachers often prefer to rely upon their experience intuition rather than the
more systematic collection of situationally based data.
Decker Walker model
In early 1970s he argued that the objectives or rational models of the curriculum process were,
centrally to accepted opinion in literature neither popular nor successful. Walker (1971)
contented that curriculum developers do situational analysis as the starting point follow the
prescriptive approach of the rational sequence of curriculum elements when they devise
curricula. Rather, they proceed through three phases in their ‘natural’ preparation of curricula.
(beliefs, theories, conception point of View, aims Objectives )
Platform

Deliberations

(Applying them to practical situations, arguing about, accepting, refusing, changing, adapting)
Curriculum Design
Lawton Model (1983)

This model was a reaction of what he saw as the danger of behavioral objectives models. It
provided five stages chart flow on curriculum planning. The first and the second stage of his
model deal with the need to achieve clarity about aims of education and the question about the
knowledge and values which are concerns of education irrespective of kind society.

Lawton contribution was on how wider cultural issues and political ideologies that shape
curriculum. He perceived curriculum as the whole way of life of a society and the purpose of
education is to make available to next generation. He suggested that for curriculum planning,
objectives, content and procedures should be selected with reference to the nature of child,
society, and knowledge. The needs, interests and problems of the individual and how it can help
answer curriculum questions Children for whom curriculum is being planned. Curriculum should
take full account of the school situations. The school being part of the society, its programmer
must therefore consider the pressure and needs of the society, without which there is no hope of
achieving success through the curriculum. This is the right step towards achieving relevance.

In this process the aims of education should be defined to reflect the philosophical orientation of
the society. The second is the improvement of the society through education. Considering the
nature of society at large should be of concern. This is in terms of how and what it should be.
43
The main concerns is on knowledge, skills and attitudes that are lacking and yet required in
education in order it level up society. Model is summarized by the conceptual frame work
shown.

Philosophical Questions(cultural variables) e.g. aims of

education worthwhile knowledge

Cultural variables the kind of society we want sociology

questions

Selection from culture

Psychological questions and theories e.g. learning, instruction

development.

Curriculum organized areas sequences.

Relevance of models in education system in Kenya.

1. Its guide in guiding teachers, administrators and educational planners to verify whether
inspissation is implementing the needs of clients they are serving.

2. Skills in setting goals, objectives; every model has its own goals and objectives based from the
needs of the individual, community and the society as a whole. The implementation lies on the
teachers as disseminators of learning and education.

3. provides curriculum implementation techniques; some of the models may be good while
others inappropriate to given situations.

4. Leads to improvement of human beings and society; its aims and goals are directed in
improvement of life.

5. Enables change in adoption skills, preservation or transformation of the society and teacher
participation in curriculum process.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

44
This refers to all those processes and activities systematically undertaken by either an individual
or an institution to come up with an educational programme. The term development can be taken
to mean improvement or the process of making quality more desirable. Curriculum
development has also been defined as a planned, purposeful, progressive, and a systematic
process to create positive improvements in the educational system (Alvior, 2014).
Oluoch (1992) describes curriculum development as the process concerned with the development
of the quality of education.
Kowino (2013), curriculum development process refers to all those processes and activates
systematically undertaken by either an individual or an institution to come up with an
educational programme.
Ondiek (1986) sees curriculum development as the planning of learning opportunities intended to
bring about changes in the pupil’s behaviours and assessment of the extent to which these
changes have taken place.
Marsh and Willis (1999) on the other hand define curriculum development as a collective and
intentional process or activity directed at beneficial curriculum changes. This definition captures
curriculum innovation, which is an important aspect of the curriculum development process. It
also points at the dynamism of the curriculum.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) point out the fact that curriculum development also involves
production of new programme of study especially when there is a total absence of curriculum to
address issues that have emerged and current problems. It entails the choosing and refining of the
content of an educational system. The program will later be implemented in the school.

The Curriculum Development process encompasses the design and development of integrated
plans for learning, the design of implementation of the plans, and of the evaluation of the plans,
their implementation and the outcomes of the learning experience.

The main purpose of the Curriculum design process is to translate broad statements of
intent into specific plans and actions. The intention is to ensure, as far as possible, alignment
between the three states of curriculum: the planned curriculum, the delivered curriculum and the
experienced curriculum. The fundamental purpose of curriculum development is to ensure that
students receive integrated, coherent learning experiences that contribute towards their personal,
academic and professional learning and development.

While in some countries, curriculum development is not done centrally, in Kenya it is centralized
and the body charged with the responsibility of developing the curriculum is the Kenya Institute
of Curriculum Development (KICD).

The curriculum development process is cyclic where one activity leads to another. Despite the
different perspectives on curriculum development there is a consensus about the fact that
45
curriculum development is a dynamic, systematic and an unending process and it involves
several stages some of which are universally adopted by curriculum developers in different parts
of the world.

The Curriculum Development process has been summarised diagrammatically in figure

Needs Policy Program

Assessment Formulation Building

Teacher Development of
Piloting
Preparation materials

Monitoring and
Implementation Maintenance
Evaluation

1. Policy Decision
This is the first stage of the curriculum development process which is also called the formal
request stage. It entails considering a policy statement from the Ministry of Education that a
new curriculum needs to be developed or the existing curriculum needs revision in order to
address some needs that have either arisen or are felt. For example in the 1990s when the
HIV/AIDS epidemic became prevalent in Kenya, there arose the need to incorporate some
content highlighting the issue and how to combat it.

A need may emerge from a policy statement that may have emanated from stakeholder’s
discussions in workshops or symposium and a conclusion reached that some actions needs to be
taken. During discussions and deliberations it might be discovered that the existing curriculum
46
is not effective in addressing the current needs of the learners and that there may be a gap in the
curriculum hence necessitating curriculum development.

2. Situational Analysis & Needs Assessment

Basically, situational analysis refers to the study of the contexts of the curriculum. A need in
the curriculum field is a situation where there is a discrepancy between what is and what ought
to be, that is, there is a gap between an ideal situation which is acceptable and a current situation
or observed state of the learner.

It is carried out to identify gaps in the current curriculum so as to obtain information that will
guide the development of the new curriculum. It involves data collection, report writing and
dissemination of the report.

Curriculum change process is usually triggered by the societal expression for the need for
change. Hence information about the community including its needs, goals and values are
looked at. Information is gathered from the learners, the teachers, the community and the
existing educational system.

Information pertaining to both the numbers and the demographics of the learners, the
prevailing legal and administrative provisions, the education act, and the current curriculum
is often used in the crafting of the new curriculum. Because learning is supposed to be learner
centred, lots of information concerning the needs, problems and interests of the learners needs
to be revealed at this stage.

Results of the needs assessment should be combined with situational analysis to develop an
appropriate curriculum for the learners and delineate the expected competencies of the learners.

It is after needs assessment and intensive situation analysis that objectives are outlined.
Objectives are essential because they:

 Assist curriculum planners in developing purposeful instructional programmes

 Justify the need for providing education and therefore, solicit support for it.
 Guide the educational process i.e. selection of content, learning experiences, teaching
methods and evaluation approaches.
 Provide a basis for evaluation, determine the extent to which an education or instructional
programme is useful (Shiundu and Omulando 1992).
According to Bloom (1964), the objectives derived should be in three main domains; the
cognitive or intellectual, the psychomotor and the affective. The objectives formulated for the
curriculum should be specific measurable, achievable, result oriented and time bound (SMART).

3. Policy Formulation

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Policy formulation is the third stage of the curriculum development process. It is based on the
findings of the needs assessment survey and the recommendations of various education
commissions set up by the Government. The policies may cover such areas as the review of

 The structure of the education system

 National goals of education and level objectives
 The number of subjects offered at each level of education
The policies are captured in the form of objectives. Objectives are the slogans that will support
the curriculum development progress and are the basis upon which justifications for the value of
education is made. Objectives will assist in the drawing of content and methods as well as the
exact basis for evaluation. The objectives must be related to the goals and are derived from the
aims. The objectives need to capture the problem which the project intends to correct as clearly
and specifically as possible.

Policy formulation involves collating the needs assessment studies and policy decision into a
report to be presented to the course panel for discussion and possible approval. The course panel
makes recommendations, which are then forwarded to the Academic Board of the Kenya
Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD). The board is chaired by the Education Secretary,
Ministry of Education and the Director of the KICD is its secretary. The Board serves the
important function of overseeing

4. Program Building
During program building, a new curriculum design for all subjects to be taught in schools is
developed or revised. Subject panels (specialists) meet to generate content guided by and
considering the competencies to be acquired by the learners (Ndire, 2007). Each dimension on
the school curriculum is considered systematically by a select panel made up of educators and
teachers. It involves the development of general objectives for each subject, topical content,
scope and sequence charts.

These panels are expected to understand and state the objectives of the curriculum. The panels
then proceed to determine, state and organize the necessary learning activities. The final task at
this level is to determine and state the methods and techniques for assessing learners.

The design will contain information about the objectives for the new curriculum content
(subject matter), methodology to be employed in the implementation, assessment
procedures and time required to cover the content of each subject. Subject syllabuses are
then developed after the design has been agreed upon.

Development of Syllabuses

During the program building stage, the subject specialists develop the syllabuses for the various
subjects in the curriculum. The subject specialists will outline;
48
  the objectives of the subject,
 the actual content to be covered,
 the sequence to be followed,
 the support materials required,
 the recommended instructional methods to be used
 time required to cover the content and
 the evaluation / assessment suggestions.
The purpose of the learning experiences that are selected is to develop skills in thinking, social
attitudes, develop interest, and aid in acquiring information. Selection of learning experiences is
based on the following criteria:
(i) Economy of content
(ii) Significance – refers to relevance, usefulness, meaningfulness, determining what
is essential to the learner. The content should assist the learner to develop skills,
attitudes and values.
(iii) Learnability – the content selected is that which will enable the learners to use
less effort and achieve more results. There should be effective learning outcomes
hence the content has to suit learners’ mental ability and developmental stage. It
should be within the range of experience of the learner.
(iv) Validity – refers to trustworthiness of the learning experiences, authenticity, and
should be consistent with the development or knowledge area. Should be
reviewed constantly to avoid being obsolete. The content has to be sound in
relation to the selected goals and objectives.
(v) Scope – scope is concerned with the depth and width of the content. A decision
has to be made on what content must be mandatory to all learners and what
content can be elective. Ultimately, a decision has to be made on what content
must be left out.
Learning experience and content is organized in two ways:

 Horizontally – this refers to determining and harmonizing how the content of all
subjects taught at any level, say form one, will relate to each other. For example,
what mathematical skills will a form 1 need to learn first so as to apply it to
understand Physics, Chemistry, geography and Biology?
 Vertically – this refers to experiences provided at different levels over time. Skills
learnt in form one will be required and used in form two, form three and form four.
In some subjects such as mathematics, lower learning is required to reinforce
learning in higher level.

Organization of content should take the following into account:

(i) Scope – Breadth of curriculum; content should be arranged in such an order as

to accompany mental development and powers.
49
 (ii) Relevance – refers to how fitting the curriculum is to the society
(iii) Balance – ensures that appropriate weight is given to each aspect of
curriculum – there should be neither over emphasis nor under emphasis which
could lead to the distortion of the curriculum.
(iv) Interrelation – refers to blending, fusion and unification of disciplines leading
to an integrated content thereby weakening subject boundaries.
(v) Continuity – repetition of content at successive levels, each time at an
increased level of complexity to reinforce learning. Repetition of content at
successive levels should be done there with caution so as to avoid overlap.
(vi) Sequencing – building each successive experience upon the preceding one. It
leads to the broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher level.
Sequencing can follow the pattern of concrete to abstract, general to specific,
or simply putting material in chronological order.
(vii) Articulation – refers to unity or interrelatedness of various aspects of the
curriculum. Each level of subject matter should be smoothly connected to the
others to ensure no wasteful overlaps.
Once the curriculum has been designed, the syllabus is developed and approved. The designed
curriculum is converted into syllabi by a panel of experts. The syllabi go through the approval
system which involves presenting them to the full subject panel, course panel and finally the
academic committee for approval. Once approved, the syllabi are printed and distributed through
the ministry of education, science and technology (MOEST).

5. Development of Curriculum Support Materials

Effective implementation of the curriculum requires the development of curriculum support
materials. After the curriculum has been developed and the syllabuses have been prepared,
accompanying learning and teaching support materials and resources are developed, examined,
validated and approved for use in the schools. This is done by the respective subject panels in
order to facilitate curriculum piloting and implementation.

This involves development and production of teacher preparation manuals, course books/
textbooks (both pupils books and teachers guides), maps, charts, models and other non-print
materials. The teacher preparation manuals and handbooks are developed by publishers and
vetted by KICD. However, liberalization of the development of textbooks in Kenya means that
the private publishers produce textbooks and the KICD only develops curriculum support
materials such as teachers guide and teachers notes in areas where publishers show no interest.
The private publishers are allowed to develop curriculum support materials and then submit them
to KICD for evaluation and checking on whether they satisfy the requirements of the curriculum
based on set criteria (Ndire, 2007). Where publishers do not come up with the course books,
KICD can develop them as an author of last resort.

6. Teacher Preparation
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Once the curriculum and the necessary support materials have been developed teachers have to
be prepared for the task of curriculum implementation. Hence, after the curriculum support
materials in the form of books have been developed, the teachers and education field officers are
given an orientation on the changes in the revised curriculum and where a new curriculum has
been developed, the teachers are trained on how to implement it. Teacher preparation involves
orienting and training them so that they have necessary knowledge and skills and have positive
attitudes towards the new curriculum which they are expected to adopt and use in schools.

However, because of the large number of teachers in the country, it is not possible to reach them
all. So Trainers of Trainers (TOTs) are educated at the national level and they in turn train
teachers at sub county levels. Such trainings are not always effective and quite often some
weaknesses are identified. For example, training is sometimes not subject-based, thus such
training may not be effective in preparing teachers for implementation of the new curriculum. A
case in point is the Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) curriculum where teachers have
complained of not being well prepared.

7. Pre-testing/Piloting
Before the curriculum is implemented nationally, it is piloted in selected schools that are
representative of the existing institutions in the country. A few schools are sampled and
pretesting is done in real schools, by real teachers with real learners. This enables the validation
of the curriculum before it is rolled out to all schools in the country.

Piloting or trying out the new curriculum and the curriculum support materials is an important
stage of the curriculum development process. This is limited implementation of the new
curriculum and it is monitored and evaluated. The information gathered on the curriculum and
support materials are used to determine its viability, effectiveness and appropriateness for
learners. Decisions as to whether to revise, improve, adjust or even shelve the new curriculum
are made based on the objectives and accurate analysis of the data that have been gathered during
piloting.

It has been observed that sometimes the team carrying out piloting implements the curriculum
despite the fact that the data shows that the curriculum requires improvements or other times
piloting is skipped altogether. Oluoch (2002) argues that the 8:4:4 programme was tried
satisfactorily, at the primary level but the try out was virtually skipped at the secondary,
technical and vocational levels due to pressure for quick implementation of the programme.
During the implementation of the 8:4:4 system of education, several problems such as
overloaded curriculum, unnecessary overlaps across grades and subjects, the broad syllabuses
whose coverage was difficult for teachers, teachers insufficient preparation to teach the new
subjects and inadequate curriculum support materials were overlooked. These activities are
necessary before full or nationwide implementation of the curriculum is undertaken.

51
Although piloting is a very essential aspect of the curriculum development process it is
expensive and time consuming. This implies piloting may not always be done or if done then it is
not done well. The KICD often uses the phasing in - phasing out strategy in revising primary and
secondary school curricula. This means that the old curriculum is gradually phased out as the
new one is gradually introduced in its place.

8. National Implementation
(a) Curriculum Improvement - Before national implementation can commence, improvement
of the curriculum is done. Suggestions given by the piloting personnel are used to modify and
perfect the program. Once the curriculum is piloted, modified and validated, institutions are
allowed to put into operation or teach the new or revised syllabus. The teacher’s role in the
implementation stage is critical. The teachers need to be in-serviced before this stage of the
process. Provision of all necessary facilities such as laboratories and workshops should be done
if the new system has to take off and succeed. There is need to carry out campaigns through mass
media to persuade the society to accept the new curriculum. There should be continuous
information on the implementation process through newsletters and annual reports. There is need
for development of training programs for key personnel; seminars for educational personnel
should be conducted regularly.

(b) Curriculum Implementation - Implementation is the act of putting the prescribed

curriculum into practice in the school. It is the ultimate objective of the curriculum development
process because only after this has been done will learners have the opportunity to experience the
curriculum and benefit from it. The teachers are the implementers of curriculum and this is
usually facilitated by Education Officers, Quality Assurance and Standards Officers (QASO) and
the school system steered by the Principals / Head teachers, teachers, Teachers Advisory Centres
([Link]) among others. All essential steps should be taken to ensure effective implementation of
the developed curriculum.

Curriculum implementation is complex and does not proceed in a linear fashion. Successful
implementation of the curriculum requires a lot of planning and effort so that proper mechanisms
are put in place. These include distribution of new syllabuses to all schools; physical facilities
such as classrooms, laboratories and workshops are erected, in-servicing and orienting teachers;
provision of curriculum support materials and continuous supervision and monitoring in schools.
Oluoch (2002) identifies nine sub processes in curriculum implementation which are:
 persuading people,
 keeping the public informed,
 educating the teachers,
 educating teacher educators,
 providing necessary facilities and equipment,
 supply of curriculum materials,
 actual presentation of the new curriculum,
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  institution of appropriate student assessment procedures and
 continuous support to the teachers.

When a new curriculum has been developed, it is essential that the people who will be affected
by it in whichever way or have some stakes in it are informed so as to understand its relative
merit over the previous one. This is to ensure their support for the new curriculum and enlist
their contributions. Such people include the teachers, educational officers from the Ministry of
Education headquarters to field officers, parents, religious leaders, politicians, professional
bodies and the general public. This will enhance the success of the entire process and forestall
any resistance, sabotage or indifference to it.

9. Monitoring and Evaluation

Evaluation refers to the assessment of worth or merit of a program of study. Monitoring
curriculum implementation involves the day-to-day follow up to ensure that everything is taking
place as planned. The information gathered should answer the questions:

 Is the program worth?

 Is there need for modification?
 Is there need for an overhaul?
 How has the project fared so far?
Any necessary correction should be made if need be. The monitoring and evaluation reports are
then presented to the course panel and academic committee for adoption. Evaluation usually
takes three forms:

 Diagnostic evaluation – done at the beginning to assess the present state i.e. assessing
the program before it is implemented. A diagnostic assessment of the teachers should
be done as they seek employment to establish that they are capable of implementing
the curriculum. A diagnostic evaluation of the curriculum as - it- is the beginning of
the new curriculum.
 Formative (ongoing) – done when the program is being executed/implemented.
Teachers play a big role of evaluating the learners, checking if allocated time is
sufficient, whether the provided materials are available and if they are adequate.
 Summative – assessing program at the end. Once the curriculum completes a cycle, a
thorough and comprehensive assessment of the quality of curriculum is done; it is
evaluated to ensure its aims are being achieved and that it is relevant. In Kenya, the
summative evaluator is the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC). If the
program is not working it should be modified and if the objectives are not being
achieved they need to be revised. Summative evaluation is usually undertaken at the
end of the implementation cycle to establish the effectiveness or otherwise of the
completed curriculum project (Ndire, 2007). Data should be gathered and the
feedback obtained should be used to improve and revise the curriculum. The findings
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 of the monitoring and evaluation team may reveal that some aspects require revision
or complete overhaul (Ndire, 2007). The findings will therefore be useful for other
processes of curriculum development such as needs assessment policy formulation,
development and design of new syllabuses. For example, there may be new
educational gaps that need to be addressed or there may be need for new policy
formulation because of an issue that has arisen such as the post-election violence that
affected many parts of Kenya in early 2008. As a result, a peace education component
was incorporated into the school curriculum to address such an issue.
The implementation of the curriculum needs to be monitored closely to ensure it is being
used in the schools faithfully by the teachers as planned. The monitoring should focus on the
objectives, content, methods of instruction and assessment procedures. Evaluation of the
curriculum should also be carried out after complete implementation. Monitoring and
evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which curriculum objectives have been
achieved or are being achieved. Evaluation is the fourth question that Tyler (1949) raised in
his rationale, “how can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?" this is
done through both formative and summative types of evaluation.

10. Maintenance
Maintenance refers to activities and procedures that allow the operation of the program to
continue. It is the management of the curriculum and support system. It involves monitoring
all the curriculum elements to ensure the implemented program continues to function
effectively.

AGENTS OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Curriculum development is a cooperative affair to ensure the success of curriculum

implementation. Some of the agencies and institutions involved in curriculum development and
implementation are: Teachers, Head teachers, Quality assurance and standards officers (QASO),
the Teachers Service Commission (TSC), the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC),
Public and Private textbook publishers, Faculties of Education of Universities, Teacher Training
Colleges, Professional Associations & Trade Unions, Boards of Management, TACs and Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs).

a) Head teachers: The Head teachers and Principals maintain a school tone and culture
that creates a conducive environment for effective curriculum implementation. The
Head teacher/Principal facilitates effective curriculum implementation by executing
supervisory functions through: deploying staff, allocating time to subjects taught at the
school, providing teaching and learning materials, and creating an atmosphere
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 conducive to effective teaching and learning. The Head teacher/Principal also monitors
and guides curriculum implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson
plans and records of marks are prepared regularly.
b) Quality assurance and standards officers (QASOs): Quality assurance and standards
officers carry out the role of supervision of education in educational institutions. They
also advise and guide teachers on the best way to approach and implement the
curriculum. They also organize in-service training for teachers a in conjunction with
subject panels.
c) Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) conducts summative evaluation of the
curriculum. It also prepares a syllabi on what will be used to evaluate the learners
which serves as a guide to the curriculum implementers.
d) Teachers Service Commission (TSC) – TSC recruits and deploys teachers to implement
the curriculum. It also recruits and deploys field officers to supervise and support the
implementation of the curriculum.
e) Publishers: Educational publishers produce learning materials and resources that are
based on research and trials, and are designed to stimulate academic success, adapted to
the changing needs of learners and their teachers. Educational publishers aid in
implementing curriculum change quickly and efficiently, deliver quality content by
investing in authorial skills and editorial refinement. They also develop and elaborate
content across all offline and digital platforms
f) Faculties of Education of Universities and Teacher Training Colleges: the expertise at
the universities and colleges is necessary for curriculum development and in many
cases is enlisted to assist in the process. Faculties of Education of Universities and
Teacher Training Colleges also prepare the teachers for the curriculum implementation
through pre-service training.
g) Professional Associations and trade unions: Professional Associations and trade unions
such as the Kenya Secondary Schools Heads Association (KESSHA), the Kenya
Primary Schools Heads Association(KEPSHA), the Kenya National Union of Teachers
(KNUT) and the Kenya Union of Post Primary Education Teachers (KUPPET) among
others participate in the curriculum development process by giving professional views
to help improve the curriculum. They also mobilize their members to accept and
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 implement the curriculum. When they feel they are not properly consulted, they could
also mobilize their membership to reject the curriculum development and
implementation process.
h) Boards of Management (BOM): It is the role of the School Board to provide strategic
guidance for the School and to effectively oversee and review the School’s
management. The Board of management recruit teachers on behalf of the Teachers
service commission (TSC) to implement the curriculum at the school level. They also
approve funding for the materials and educational resources required in the curriculum
implementation.
i) Teacher Advisory Centres (TACs): The Teacher Advisory Centres participate in
curriculum evaluation particularly in primary schools by organizing evaluation panels
that are patronized by Curriculum Support Officers (CSO). In such panels there are key
resource teachers who assist in the in-servicing of other teachers in order to prepare
them for the evaluation exercise. The TACS also evaluate the curriculum to determine
its relevance and recommend to the ministry of education what improvements should
be made on teacher performance, instruction, materials and the entire curriculum
development process.
j) Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) - Non-Governmental Organisations play a
supportive but critical role in the curriculum development process. UN agencies fund
and provide personnel and expertise to support the curriculum development process.
Other NGOs support curriculum development and improvement in delivery. An
example in this regard is JICA which has supported curriculum delivery through
SMASSE and CEMASTEA.

Role of teachers in curriculum development process

The most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher. Teachers are
central to any curriculum improvement effort by virtue of their knowledge, experience and
competencies. Teachers are the most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are
responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. The role and influence of the teacher

56
in the process is critical since curriculum implementation takes place through the interaction of
the learner and the planned learning opportunities.

If the teacher is to be able to translate curriculum intentions into reality, it is imperative that
the teacher understand the curriculum document or syllabus well in order to implement it
effectively. The key is to enhance the teacher’s knowledge of the program through in-service
and workshops. The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. In the classroom,
decision making is the responsibility of the teacher. Initially, curriculum implementation is at the
program level and decision making is of a programmatic nature. After this, the classroom
teachers take over and make decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering
questions like: What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction? What topics or
content will I have to cover? What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning
and achieve the objectives? How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have
successfully achieved the objective?

Emerging issues in curriculum management

In the recent past Post Election Violence (PEV), HIV/AIDS and environmental degradation have
influenced the curriculum development process with these themes being integrated in the
curriculum. Several issues have emerged over time and may influence the curriculum
development process. They include: pollution, terrorism, corruption, cattle rustling, road
carnage, drug and substance abuse, child abuse, tribalism and domestic violence. Education in its
general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, values, skills, attitudes and habits of
a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching and training.
Thus education can be used to help either solve or alleviate the emerging issues. Emerging issues
can be either integrated or infused into the curriculum. Thus the values and virtues desired to
overcome the social ills can be inculcated from an early age in the learner. The end result is a
product emerging from the education system that has the requisite values to fit in society.

Basis/Areas of Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is the determination of the worth or value of something. Curriculum evaluation is a

process of establishing the extent to which curriculum objectives have been achieved.

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Knowledge is seen as something similar to a product that is manufactured. The product of the
learning experience is judged against the objectives as good or poor. Evaluation entails the
developing and the identifying of assessment Items and instruments to measure students’
progress. In many cases, a set of grade-level criterion-referenced tests, performance based tasks
and course final examinations that answer concretely the question, "how will I know that my
students know and are able to do what is expected of them?" holds an entire curriculum together.
This evaluation aspect of the curriculum development process helps to focus instruction and
ensures the alignment of curriculum, instruction and assessment. Essentially, evaluation is what
drives curriculum. The assessments measure not only student progress, but also the effectiveness
of the goals and objectives of the curriculum in meeting student needs. Common grade-level,
course criterion-referenced assessments and performance based assessments should be created
along with the curriculum and become part of the curriculum guide itself. The assessments
should include clear performance expectations and a rubric that clearly defines the expectations
for students and teachers alike. They help to clarify exactly what the grade or course objectives
mean and provide a common standard for evaluating how successfully they are achieved.

The objective of conducting evaluation is therefore to enable the assessor to determine whether
the curricula objectives are being achieved or not. This implies that task or item developers
should be familiar with the objectives and topics of the syllabus they are testing on. Diagnostic,
formative and summative evaluations are needed to determine the needs of students, assess
progress towards objectives during instruction and appraise the outcomes of instruction at the
end of given periods.

Evaluation is used to:

1. Give feedback to the planners, learners, teachers and society

2. Provide a rationale for making changes
3. Check on the suitability and the appropriateness of the curriculum in answering social
needs
4. Select appropriate content based on the aims and objectives of the curriculum
5. Check the effectiveness of methods and learning experiences used

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While conducting evaluations, judgments must be made regarding outcomes of the whole
learning process.

Teacher Education curriculum

The teacher education curriculum is the set of programs that are used to train teachers. Through
this programs teachers acquire the relevant skills, attitudes and abilities that teachers require in
performing their duties. Although there are different levels of teacher training the programs have
a set of common objectives that are discussed below.

Objectives
 To develop in the teacher the basic theoretical and practical knowledge about the
teaching profession
 To develop in the teacher the ability to communicate effectively
 To enable teachers to develop to adapt to changes
 To create in the teacher consciousness for the excellence in education
 To develop in the teachers an awareness appreciation and usefulness of innovation in the
field of education
 To develop in the teacher awareness of the principles which underlie good human
relationships and use these in their dealings with the children and the community
 To promote national unity, national development and social equity.

Levels of teacher training

There are different levels of teacher training whose curriculum descriptions are different. Six
levels of teacher training are identified as shown.
 E.C.D.E teacher education
 Primary teacher education
 Secondary teacher education
 Technical teacher education
 Higher level education
 Special teacher

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Curriculum description for special education and secondary education teacher training are
discussed below.

Special Teacher Education

First implemented at the Kenyatta Teachers College in Nairobi from 1969. Then transferred to
Siriba where teachers acquired SI certificated. In 1978 was transferred to Kamwenja Teachers
college after Siriba was promoted to train Diploma teachers. Later it was transferred to Kenya
institute of special Education. Kenyatta University offers a curriculum for secondary school
education with special education. All trained teachers at any level can enroll for special teacher
education after graduation.
Content
 Specialization in one of the major areas of special education
 Education psychology
 Education for children with learning disabilities
 Language and communication skills
 General knowledge

Methods
Field experience, teaching practice, internship, practicum, and classroom lectures

Evaluation
 Projects
 Classroom/practice supervision
 General reports from observation

Secondary education
Content
 Professional knowledge
 Psychology
 Sociology
 Curriculum
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  Philosophy of education
 Content area
 Field practice

Methodology
 Formal classroom methods
 Projects
 Teaching practice

Evaluation
 Field observation or supervision/classroom practice reports
 End of semester exams

Stages of teacher training

There are three stages of teacher training which include; pre-service teacher training, induction
and continuing teacher education.

Pre-service teacher training

A fresh secondary school graduate enrolls in a formal teacher training institution where
foundational knowledge and content knowledge is taught. During the first year of training the
knowledge provided includes; philosophy of education, psychology of education, curriculum and
sociology of education. Later the trainee is equipped with content and skills in the content area.
For primary and early school teaching, the trainee is equipped with knowledge in all subjects
while for secondary school the trainees are exposed to content in areas of specialization.

Induction
This is the period when the teacher trainee assumes the role and responsibilities of a teacher for
the first time. This begins with small scale teaching (microteaching) when the trainees teach in
small groups among themselves. The trainees are then attached to schools where they practice
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teaching as they are mentored by the experienced teachers within the school. The initial years (1-
2years) of teaching are also part of the induction period. The new teacher is under supervision of
the subject heads until confirmation. Some of the methods used to mentor the teachers include
subject lead approach, cluster lead approach and benchmarking and peer tutoring.

Continuing Teacher Education

There is need for practicing teachers to improve the quality of teaching in order to address
changes in teacher education as well as to enable the teacher function better. In servicing of
teachers is done to equip teachers with desirable skills such as special needs, computer literacy,
accounting, record keeping, health, diet and administration. In servicing improves teaching
effectiveness. In servicing of teachers is done through workshops, seminars and short courses
mainly done during holiday breaks. A teacher who wishes to advance in knowledge can enroll
for higher level teaching or other fields of study such as business management, guidance and
counselling and others. Several provisions for study are given to teachers interested in furthering
their studies. They include: evening, weekend and school holiday programs.

Models of teacher training

A model of teacher training is a framework forwarded by scholars on how teacher training
should be programmed. It provides insights on how the curriculum should be organized or
structured. Five models of teacher training are discussed below.
 Applied science model. In this model emphasis is placed on a wide base of knowledge in
form of theories. Teaching is seen as a planned and procedural activity. A teacher is
considered successful if he/she can apply theories in teaching and contribute to the existing
theories through research. Although this model can be used to train teachers in mass, the
teachers trained have limited practical skills. Due to its theoretical nature, the curriculum is
bound to be too wide where trainees are forced to cover more than necessary content.
 Craft model. This model is built on the philosophy of do as I do. A teacher trainee imitates
the trainer in practicing a given skill. This approach is commonly used in training technical
teachers. Using this approach in teacher training builds experiential knowledge in the
teachers. The main disadvantage of this model is that not very many teachers can be trained
at the same time since it requires one to one interaction.
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 Reflective model. This a hybrid model between the applied science and the craft models. It
capitalizes on the strengths of both craft and applied science model. A theoretical approach is
embraced at the onset of training while the periods of induction are lengthened. Instead of
classroom lectures other approaches to teaching such as projects, discussions and field
activities are employed.
 Consecutive. One area of training precedes the other. For example, professional training
comes before content area training or Vis versa. Post graduate’s diploma in education comes
after a general degree like bachelor of arts or science thus training model is consecutive. The
bachelor of education degree programme is organized such that students study professional
knowledge during initial years while content area comes later. As commonly practiced,
induction is done at the end. This qualified the programme as consecutive in nature.
 Concurrent. Both professional and content area are taught simultaneously. Concerning
school based programs induction and formal training go o together. Teachers are given
assignments to work out as they continue with teaching.

Take away assignment

DISCUSS THE APPLICATION OF FIVE CURRICULUM APPROACHES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
COMPETENCY BASED CURRICULUM IN KENYA

 Behavioural
 Managerial
 Systems
 Academic
 Humanist
 Reconceptualist

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 ADDITIONAL NOTES RELEVANT TO THE COURSE
There are various hindrances that can affect the effective
implementation of a curriculum, including:

1. Lack of resources: One of the most common hindrances to effective

curriculum implementation is a lack of resources such as funding, personnel,
materials, and equipment. Without these essential resources, it can be
challenging to implement the curriculum as intended.
2. Inadequate teacher training: Teachers play a crucial role in the
implementation of a curriculum. If they are not adequately trained in the
curriculum content, instructional strategies, and assessment techniques, it
can negatively impact the implementation process.
3. Resistance to change: Resistance to change can hinder the implementation
of a new curriculum. This resistance may come from teachers, parents, or
students who are comfortable with the old curriculum and are not ready to
adapt to the new one.
4. Inappropriate assessment methods: Inappropriate assessment methods can
also hinder effective curriculum implementation. If the assessment methods
used do not align with the curriculum objectives, they may not accurately
measure student learning and progress.
5. Lack of support: Without adequate support from the school administration,
community, and other stakeholders, the implementation of a curriculum may
be challenging. This support can come in the form of funding, personnel,
training, and other resources necessary for successful implementation.
6. Inadequate communication: Effective communication is essential to the
successful implementation of a curriculum. Without clear and consistent
communication between teachers, administrators, students, and parents, it
can be challenging to ensure everyone understands the curriculum's goals
and objectives.
7. Lack of time: Teachers have a lot of demands on their time, and
implementing a new curriculum can be time-consuming. This can be
especially challenging if they have other responsibilities, such as
extracurricular activities or administrative duties.
8. Inappropriate curriculum design: If the curriculum is not well-designed, it
may be difficult to implement effectively. For example, if the curriculum is
too complex or too simple, it may not meet the needs of all students.

Overall, these hindrances can lead to a disconnect between the intended

curriculum and what is actually implemented in the classroom. To address
these challenges, it is crucial to involve all stakeholders in the
implementation process, provide adequate resources and support, and

64
ensure that teachers are adequately trained and prepared to implement the
curriculum effectively.

References
Ondieki P.E. (1986). Alternatives in Educational theory and practice.
Shiundu, J,S & Omulando, SJ. (1992). Curriculum theory and practice in Kenya. Nairobi: oxford
university press.
Sifuna, DN. (1980). Development of Education in africa. Nairobi: initiative ltd.
Eshiwani, G,S. (1993). Education in Kenya since independence. Nairobi: East African
Educational publishers, ltd.
Oluoch , G.P (2002). essential of curriculum development. Nairobi: Birds printer
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and practice, New York: Harcourt Brace and
World.
Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Print, M. (1993). Curriculum Development and Design. 2nd ed. St. Leonards, NSW: Allen &
Unwin.

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