Environmental

studies
SYLLABUS

Ecosystem — Introduction-Abiotic and Biotic

components. Structure and functions of Ecosystem -
Food Chain, Food web, Ecological pyramids, Energy
flow and biogeochemical cycles. Biodiversity -
Values, Type and levels of biodiversity. Causes of
depletion. Conservation of biodiversity
ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature,
where living organisms interact among themselves and also with
the surrounding physical environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest
or a sea.
Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a global
ecosystem, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a physical
structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals,
and other organisms, as well as weather and landscape,
work together to form a bubble of life.
Interaction of biotic and abiotic components result in a
physical structure that is characteristic for each type of
ecosystem.
Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms.
Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity.
 BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Biotic factors relate to all the living things in the ecosystem.

Their presence and their biological by-products affect the
composition of an ecosystem. Biotic factors refer to all living
organisms from animals and humans, to plants, fungi, and
bacteria.
These include producers, consumers, decomposers and
detritivores
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

Abiotic factors refer to all the non-living, i.e. chemical and physical
factors present in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
Sunlight, air, precipitation, minerals, and soil are some examples of
abiotic factors. These factors have a significant impact on the survival
and reproduction of species in an ecosystem

Abiotic examples typically depend on the type of ecosystem. For

instance, abiotic components in a terrestrial ecosystem include air,
weather, water, temperature, humidity, altitude, the pH level of soil, type
of soil and more. Abiotic examples in an aquatic ecosystem include
water salinity, oxygen levels, pH levels, water flow rate, water depth and
temperature.
FUNCTIONS

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems
and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involves the exchange of energy
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides
the energy required for all plant life. The plants utilise this
energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to
synthesise their food. During this biological process, light
energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on
through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer,
to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a
detritivore is called the food chain.
FOOD CHAIN
● A food chain is described as the transfer of energy from
producers (green plants) through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten
● Ex: Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle
● Each step in the food chain is called a trophic level
● There are two types of food chain :
● Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain
that starts with green plants, passes through herbivores and then to
carnivores. In a grazing food chain, energy in the lowest trophic
level is acquired from photosynthesis
TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN
Grazing food chain: Detritus food chain:
The detritus food chain includes different
The grazing food chain is a type of species of organisms and plants like algae,
food chain that starts with green bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects,
plants, passes through herbivores worms and so on. The detritus food chain
and then to carnivores. In a grazing begins with dead organic material. The food
food chain, energy in the lowest energy passes into decomposers and
trophic level is acquired from detritivores, which are further eaten by
smaller organisms like carnivores.
photosynthesis
Carnivores, like maggots, become a meal for
bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so
on. Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria,
protozoans, and so on are detritivores which
feed on detritus.
FOOD WEB
Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is
similar to a food chain but the food web is comparatively larger than a
food chain. Occasionally, a single organism is consumed by many
predators or it consumes several other organisms. Due to this, many
trophic levels get interconnected. The food chain fails to showcase the
flow of energy in the right way. But, the food web is able to show the
proper representation of energy flow, as it displays the interactions
between different organisms.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the
relationship between the different living organisms at different
trophic levels. Charles Elton developed the concept of the
pyramid of numbers. Later, [Link] Hutchinson and
Raymond Lindeman developed the idea of the pyramid of
energy or productivity

The pyramid is framed based on the number of individuals,

energy, and biomass, and very much like the name
recommends, these are shaped as a pyramid. The various
kinds of ecological pyramids depend on how much energy or
biomass or individuals are accessible to each trophic level
PYRAMID OF NUMBER

The Pyramid of Number denotes the total number of living

individuals at various trophic levels in an ecological system. The
producers are at the base and top carnivores at the topmost level in
this pyramid
UPRIGHT PYRAMID

The pyramid of numbers

can be both upright and
inverted.
1)The upright pyramid has
the largest number of
producers at the base and
their numbers keep on
declining with each passing
level like pond or grassland
ecosystem.
INVERTED PYRAMID
2)In the inverted pyramid, the
base pointed with a lesser
number of producers whereas the
topmost level will have the
largest number of individuals as
the size and food consumption of
organisms in each level will
decrease.
The pyramid is inverted because
there is one large producer (the
tree), but the number of herbivores
feeding on the tree is greater.
Additionally, the number of
parasites (like ticks, mites, or
insects) feeding on the herbivores
might be even higher, creating a
situation where there are fewer
producers but more consumers at
higher trophic levels.
PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

A pyramid of biomass represents the total mass of

living organisms (biomass) at each trophic level in an
ecosystem. Unlike the pyramid of numbers, which
counts the individuals at each level, the pyramid of
biomass focuses on the total dry weight of all
organisms in that trophic level.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM (GRASSLAND)
Producers (Base): Grasses and plants, which collectively have a
large biomass because they cover vast areas and have extensive
root systems.
Primary Consumers (Middle): Herbivores like rabbits, insects,
and grazing animals, which feed on the plants. Their total biomass
is less than that of the producers.
Secondary/Tertiary Consumers (Top): Carnivores such as foxes,
snakes, and birds of prey, which feed on the herbivores. Their
biomass is even smaller due to the energy lost at each trophic
level.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM (OPEN OCEAN)

● Producers (Base): Phytoplankton, which have a relatively

small biomass compared to their rapid turnover rate (they
reproduce quickly and are consumed rapidly).
● Primary Consumers (Middle): Zooplankton, which feed on
the phytoplankton. Their biomass can be larger than that of
phytoplankton at any given time because they live longer
and have a greater mass individually.
● Secondary Consumers (Top): Small fish and other marine
animals that feed on zooplankton. Their biomass is less
than that of the zooplankton.
Inverted Pyramid of
Biomass: In some
aquatic ecosystems, the
pyramid of biomass can
be inverted. This is
because the producers
(phytoplankton) are
rapidly consumed and
replaced, so at any given
moment, their biomass is
less than that of the
consumers (zooplankton)
feeding on them.
10% LAW
The 10% Law is a principle in ecology that describes the
efficiency of energy transfer in an ecosystem. It was
proposed by ecologist Raymond Lindeman in 1942 and
states that, on average, only about 10% of the energy
stored in one trophic level is passed onto the next trophic
level in a food chain. The remaining 90% of the energy is
lost, primarily as heat, through metabolic processes such
as respiration, movement, and reproduction.
Energy Capture:
● Producers (Plants, Algae): At the base of the food chain,
producers capture solar energy through photosynthesis and
convert it into chemical energy stored in organic molecules (e.g.,
glucose). This energy forms the basis of the ecosystem's energy
flow.
Primary Consumers (Herbivores):
● Herbivores consume the producers and gain only a fraction of
the energy stored in their biomass. According to the 10% law,
only about 10% of the energy stored in the producers is
transferred to the herbivores. The rest is lost as heat through
metabolic activities and waste.
Secondary Consumers (Carnivores):

● When carnivores eat herbivores, they

obtain only about 10% of the energy
stored in the herbivores. Again, the
majority of the energy is lost as heat or
used in the herbivore’s metabolic
processes.

Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators):

● Top predators that consume secondary

consumers receive only about 10% of the
energy from that trophic level, further
diminishing the available energy.
WATER CYCLE
The water cycle is the continuous movement of water
on, above, and below the Earth's surface. Driven by
solar energy, it begins with evaporation of water from
oceans, lakes, and rivers into the atmosphere. Plants
also contribute through transpiration. As the water
vapor rises, it cools and undergoes condensation,
forming clouds. When these clouds become saturated,
water returns to the Earth's surface as precipitation
(rain, snow, etc.).
 Some of this water infiltrates the ground, replenishing
groundwater reserves, while the rest flows as runoff into
rivers, lakes, and eventually back to the oceans. This
cycle is crucial for maintaining life, regulating climate, and
supporting ecosystems by ensuring the continuous
availability of freshwater . Human activities like
deforestation, urbanization, and climate change can
significantly impact the water cycle, affecting the
environment and water resources.
CARBON CYCLE
CARBON CYCLE

The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is

exchanged among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and
living organisms on Earth. It is crucial for regulating
Earth's climate and supporting life by cycling carbon,
an essential element in organic molecules.
Key Processes of the Carbon Cycle
1. Photosynthesis:
○ Description: Plants, algae, and some
bacteria absorb carbon dioxide (CO₂) from
the atmosphere and use sunlight to
convert it into glucose and oxygen. This
process stores carbon in plant biomass.
○ Significance: This is the primary way
carbon enters the living part of the
ecosystem.
[Link]:

● Description: Organisms, including plants, animals, and microbes,

break down glucose for energy, releasing CO₂ back into the
atmosphere as a byproduct.
● Significance: Respiration returns carbon to the atmosphere,
balancing the carbon absorbed during photosynthesis.

[Link]:

● Description: When organisms die, decomposers (bacteria, fungi)

break down their bodies, releasing carbon stored in their biomass
back into the soil and atmosphere as CO₂ or methane (CH₄).
● Significance: Decomposition recycles carbon within ecosystems,
contributing to soil fertility and the atmospheric carbon pool.
[Link] Carbon Exchange:
● Description: Oceans absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere. Some
of this carbon is used by marine organisms for photosynthesis,
and some is stored in ocean waters. Oceans can also release
CO₂ back into the atmosphere.
● Significance: The oceans are the largest carbon sink, storing
more carbon than the atmosphere.
[Link]:
● Description: Over millions of years, some dead organic matter
is buried and, under high pressure and heat, transforms into
fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.
● Significance: Fossil fuels represent long-term carbon storage.
When burned, they release stored carbon back into the
atmosphere as CO₂.
Combustion:
● Description: The burning of fossil fuels, wood, and other
carbon-based materials releases CO₂ and other greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere.
● Significance: Human activities, especially the burning of
fossil fuels, have significantly increased atmospheric CO₂
levels, contributing to global warming and climate change.
Carbon Sequestration:
● Description: Carbon can be stored in various natural
reservoirs, such as forests, soils, and oceans, for long
periods. Artificial methods, like carbon capture and storage
(CCS), are also being developed to mitigate climate change.
● Significance: Sequestration helps to reduce the amount of
carbon in the atmosphere, mitigating climate impacts.
NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle is the process through which nitrogen is
converted into various chemical forms as it circulates between the
atmosphere, soil, and living organisms. Nitrogen, essential for all
living things, is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas (N₂),
but most organisms cannot use it in this form. The cycle begins
with nitrogen fixation, where bacteria convert N₂ into ammonia
(NH₃), which plants can absorb. Nitrification then converts
ammonia into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and nitrates (NO₃⁻), which are also
usable by plants. Assimilation occurs when plants take up these
compounds and incorporate them into proteins and other organic
molecules.
 When organisms die, decomposition returns
nitrogen to the soil as ammonia. Denitrification then
converts some of this nitrogen back into N₂ gas,
releasing it into the atmosphere, completing the
cycle. This cycle is crucial for soil fertility and the
growth of plants, which are the base of most food
chains.
WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY ?
Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll
find in one area—the variety of animals, plants,
fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that
make up our natural world. Each of these species
and organisms work together in ecosystems, like
an intricate web, to maintain balance and support
life. Biodiversity supports everything in nature
that we need to survive: food, clean water,
medicine, and shelter.
VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
[Link] Value:
● Biodiversity ensures ecosystem stability, resilience, and
productivity. It supports processes like pollination, nutrient
cycling, and soil formation, which are essential for
maintaining life on Earth.
[Link] Value:
● Biodiversity provides resources such as food, medicine,
and raw materials. Ecosystems also offer services like
water purification, climate regulation, and tourism, which
have direct economic benefits.
[Link] and Cultural Value:
● Biodiversity enriches human experiences and cultures
through the beauty of nature, recreational opportunities,
and spiritual connections to the environment.
[Link] Value:
● Studying biodiversity enhances our understanding of
biology, ecology, and evolution. It also provides insights
for developing new technologies and innovations.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
[Link] Diversity:
● Definition: The variety of genes within a species. Genetic
diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments
and is crucial for survival and evolution.
● Example: Different breeds of dogs, varieties of crops, or
strains of bacteria.
[Link] Diversity:
● Definition: The variety of species within a habitat or
region. It includes the number of species (species
richness) and the evenness of their populations.
● Example: A rainforest with thousands of plant, animal, and
microorganism species.
[Link] Diversity:
● Definition: The variety of ecosystems within a
geographic location, including the interactions among
species and their physical environment.
● Example: Forests, deserts, wetlands, and coral reefs
are different ecosystems with unique communities and
processes.
CAUSES OF DEPLETION
[Link] Destruction:
● Explanation: Deforestation, urbanization, agriculture, and mining
destroy natural habitats, leading to the loss of species that cannot
survive in altered environments.
● Impact: Loss of habitats like tropical rainforests and coral reefs is
a major driver of species extinction.
[Link] Change:
● Explanation: Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and
extreme weather events disrupt ecosystems and force species to
migrate or adapt, often leading to population declines or extinction.
● Impact: Polar bears losing sea ice habitat and coral bleaching due
to rising ocean temperatures are examples of climate change
impacts.
[Link]:
● Explanation: Pollution from chemicals, plastics, oil spills,
and agricultural runoff harms wildlife and degrades
ecosystems.
● Impact: Water pollution leads to dead zones in oceans and
lakes, while air pollution contributes to acid rain and climate
change.
[Link]:
● Explanation: Overharvesting of resources, including
hunting, fishing, and logging, depletes species faster than
they can reproduce.
● Impact: Overfishing has led to the collapse of fish
populations, and illegal wildlife trade threatens species like
elephants and rhinos.
5. Invasive Species:
● Explanation: Non-native species introduced by
humans can outcompete, prey on, or bring diseases
to native species, disrupting ecosystems.
● Impact: The introduction of invasive species like the
zebra mussel in North America and the cane toad in
Australia has caused significant ecological harm.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
[Link]-Situ Conservation:
● Explanation: Protecting species in their natural habitats
through the establishment of protected areas like
national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine sanctuaries.
● Examples: Yellowstone National Park (USA) and the
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Australia).
● Benefits: Maintains ecological processes and allows
species to continue evolving in their natural
environments.
[Link]-Situ Conservation:
● Explanation: Conserving species outside their
natural habitats through measures like captive
breeding, seed banks, and botanical gardens.
● Examples: Zoos, aquariums, and seed vaults like the
Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
● Benefits: Provides a safety net for species at risk of
extinction and supports reintroduction programs.
[Link] and Policy Measures:
● Explanation: Implementing laws and international
agreements to protect species and habitats, such
as the Endangered Species Act (USA) and the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
● Examples: CITES (Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species) regulates trade in
endangered species to prevent overexploitation.
[Link] and Sustainable Development:
● Explanation: Engaging local communities in
conservation efforts and promoting
sustainable use of resources to ensure
long-term biodiversity protection.
● Examples: Community-managed forests and
eco-friendly tourism initiatives.
[Link] Ecology:
● Explanation: Actively restoring degraded
ecosystems to their natural state by replanting
native species, controlling invasive species, and
rehabilitating habitats.
● Examples: Reforestation projects and wetland
restoration.