ENERGY

Energy resources refer to sources of power such as wood fuel, fossil fuels, solar, hydro electricity,
geothermal, wind, tidal and nuclear.

Renewable energy resources

These are forces of nature which provide energy and can be used over and over again. They are able
to replace or regenerate themselves. These include running water (hydro electricity, geothermal,
solar, wind, tidal power and bio fuels.

Non-renewable energy resources

These are resources which eventually run out eg coal, oil, natural gas.

Why global demand for energy is increasing

 Electricity makes household tasks easier.

 Modern transport systems are based mainly on petroleum use.
 Energy is required for economic development or to increase industrial output.
 Population growth also causes increasing demand for energy.
 Energy is also required for technological advances.

Problems of higher energy consumption

 Use of fossil fuels results in air pollution.

 Interdependence of countries on each other for energy supplies can lead to conflicts.
 There concerns about the safety of nuclear power.
 High energy consumption leads to depletion of non-renewable resources.

Non-renewable energy resources

Fossil fuels

These are coal, oil and natural gas.

Coal

This is a sedimentary rock which formed from decaying vegetative matter in swamps. It is obtained
through open cast or shaft mining.

Advantages of coal

 It isused to power locomotives.

 Coal is fairly plentiful.
 Use of coal creates employment in mining of coal and its distribution.
 It is a relatively cheap energy source.
 It has many other industrial uses eg making coke.
 It is used to generate electricity and for heating.

1
Disadvantages

 It causes air, land and water pollution.

 It is a health hazard.
 Coal is bulky and dirty hence difficult to handle.
 It leads to quick wear and tear of machinery.
 It has generally low energy content.

Oil

Crude oil or petroleum was formed from plankton that previously floated in the oceans. When
plankton died it fell to the sea bed and was buried in mud. Geological processes converted the
plankton into crude oil. It is extracted by drilling a well and the oil comes out under its pressure or
needs pumping out. Oil rigs are used in the extraction of oil. Crude oil is then refined to produce
petrol, diesel, kerosene, paraffin.

Advantages of oil

 It is easy to transport by pipeline.

 It is the only fuel in mass use for vehicles.
 It is less polluting than coal when burnt.
 It is also a raw material in the chemical industry.

Disadvantages of oil

 Burning oil produces greenhouse gases and can lead to increased global warming.
 Oil spills from leaking tankers and pipelines can cause pollution which kills wildlife.
 World oil production is concentrated in a small number of countries which control both
supply and the price.
 Work on board oil rigs can be dangerous.

Natural gas

A lot of natural gas was formed from plants that grew in tropical swamps. Like oil it accumulates in
porous rocks eg sandstone and limestone and is extracted in the same way.

Advantages of natural gas

 Electricity generation using natural gas is less expensive than using oil.
 Gas fired generating plants are less expensive to build than coal and nuclear plants.
 Gas is easy to transport through pipelines.
 It is less polluting than coal.

Disadvantages

 It is very inflammable hence dangerous.

2
  It is difficult and expensive to store.
 It causes air pollution

Thermal power stations

Coal, oil, natural gas are used are used to power thermal power stations. The fuel in thermal power
stations is burnt to produce heat, which turns water into steam. The steam is then used to turn
turbines to produce electricity.

Advantages of thermal power

 Many countries still have large reserves of fuel eg coal in South Africa and Germany.
 Oil and gas are transported efficiently by pipeline.
 It is not affected by weather conditions.

Disadvantages of thermal power

 Thermal power stations are major sources of air pollution.

 World coal reserves may last for only another 300 years and oil and gas for even a shorter
time.
 Overreliance on imported fuels makes countries vulnerable to sudden increases in prices
and political threats from exporting countries.

Nuclear power

Nuclear power production is similar to thermal power production in a number of ways. In both,
water is heated to convert it to steam. However, in nuclear power, the heat comes from uranium, a
radio active metal. Uranium atoms split (nuclear fission) and release energy in the form of heat. The
nuclear energy is produced in a nuclear reactor. The energy produced is used to boil water. The
steam from the water drives turbines to generate electricity.

Factors considered when locating nuclear power stations

 Large flat sites are needed for the plant and for cooling towers.
 Pure water is needed for cooling –sea water will not do unless desalinised.
 Some nuclear power stations are built on the coast to dispose of very low level liquid,
radioactive waste.
 In the past plants were located away from areas of dense population due to concerns about
safety.

Advantages of nuclear power

 Only very small amounts of uranium are needed to produce large amounts of energy.
 Uranium will not run out in the foreseeable future. Nuclear power is not vulnerable to fuel
price fluctuations as oil and gas.
 It does not produce greenhouse gases and acid. Safety record of nuclear power stations has
improved and the industry is highly regulated.
 It reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels. Nuclear technology has spin-offs in fields such as
agriculture and medicine.

3
Disadvantages of nuclear power

 There have been incidences of leaks of radioactivity from nuclear plants eg at Chernobyl in
Ukraine in 1986.
 Radioactivity causes diseases such as cancer.
 There are questions about safety of nuclear power stations in earthquake zones eg the 2011
Japan earthquake caused explosion and leakage of radioactive materials at Fukushima
nuclear plant.
 Costs of shutting down old nuclear power plants are very high.
 Radioactive waste from power stations remains a health hazard for thousands of years- it
requires careful storage and is difficult to dispose of safely.
 Nuclear power stations produce raw materials for nuclear weapons so there are security
concerns.
 Nuclear plants are expensive to build.

Renewable energy resources

Use of renewables is expected to increase because:

 Oil prices are anticipated to increase.

 There is concern about environmental effects of fossil fuels.
 There are concerns that fossil fuels will eventually run out.
 There are government incentives for increasing the use of renewable energy in many
countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions.
 There is need to improve energy security with higher domestic energy production.

Geothermal power

This is energy extracted from hot rocks or water beneath the earth’s surface. The hot areas tend to
be near plate margins. Steam from hot underground water is used to drive turbines to produce
electricity. Countries with such projects include Japan, Philippines and Iceland.

Advantages of geothermal power

 It is cheap and reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels.

 It does not produce greenhouse gases.
 Water can be pumped back into the ground and reused.
 It can operate at any time of the day or year and is not affected by weather.
 Geothermal plants occupy relatively small areas.

Disadvantages of geothermal power

 It is restricted to areas with suitable geology.

 It may be destroyed by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
 Groundwater is saline and often poisonous.
 Total global generation of geothermal power remains very small.
 Some locations of power are very far from where the energy could be used.
 Installation costs of plant are relatively high.

4
Wind power

Modern commercial wind farms work by having a large number of wind mills driving huge turbines
to produce electricity. Wind farms are located in in wide open spaces on land and also offshore
around coasts. Countries with such projects include: USA, China, India, Netherlands, Denmark, UK.

Advantages of wind power

 It does not cause air pollution, global warming or acid rain.

 It has very little effect on the ecosystem except occasionally killing birds that get caught in
the blades.
 In Europe the wind is strongest in winter when the demand for electricity peaks.
 After the initial capital input, production is cheap because the fuel is free.

Disadvantages of wind power

 It cannot be used during calm periods.

 Wind farms present visual pollution.
 The technology is relatively new and at present very large number of turbines are needed to
generate a fair amount of electricity.

Solar power

Solar panels are used to harness energy from the sun to power radios, televisions, water heaters.
When more solar energy is generated than being used, it can be stored in a battery or exported to
the national utility grid. In many countries the greatest use of solar power has been by private
individuals or companies rather than as a contribution to the national electricity grids. Experts say
that solar power has huge potential for technological improvement which could make it a major
source of global electricity in future.

Advantages of solar power

 It is safe and pollution free.

 After initial capital input, production is cheap because fuel is free.
 It can be used effectively for low power uses eg heating swimming pools.
 It can be used in LEDCs where people live in locations that are isolated from the national
electricity grids. Solar panels have a long life span.
 There is very limited maintenance required to keep solar plants running.

Disadvantages of solar power

 The initial capital input is very high.

 It is not very effective in cloudy countries.
 It is less effective for high output uses such as powering colour televisions.
 Large areas of land are required to capture the sun ‘s energy in order to generate significant
amounts of power.

Hydro-electricity

5
Hydro-electricity is by far the most important source of renewable energy. The big four HEP nations
of China, Brazil, Canada and USA account for almost 53% of the global total.

Siting hydro-electric power stations

An ideal site for a hydro-electric power station should have the following aspects:

 A large river with a constant flow of water throughout the year supported by high rainfall in
the drainage basin is required eg the Zambezi river. The drainage basin above the power
station should be very large with a large number of streams feeding the drainage basin.
 The water should be fast flowing facilitated by a steep gradient.
 A narrow valley to provide a good dam site is needed eg Kariba dam was built at a narrow
steep sided valley.
 The rocks should be impermeable so that the reservoir does not leak.
 There should be stable geological conditions so that the dam wall does not collapse.
 The area should be sparsely populated land so that large numbers of people do not have to
be moved to create the reservoir.

Stages in hydro electricity generation

 A dam is first built across the river.

 Near the bottom of the dam wall is a water intake which controls the amount of water
allowed to leave the reservoir.
 Gravity causes the water to fall through the penstock.
 At the end of the penstock is a turbine propeller which is turned by moving water.
 The shaft from the turbine goes to a generator, which produces the power.
 Power lines are connected to the generator to carry electricity to where it is needed.
 The water that has flowed past the turbines may be pumped back up the storage pool above
the power station.
 When the demand is high the water is allowed to flow back through the turbine generators
to produce electricity again.

6
Advantages of hydro electricity

 Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.

 There are no fuel costs.
 The reservoir can be used for water sports and leisure activities.
 The stored water can be used for irrigation and other purposes.
 There is no atmospheric pollution.

Disadvantages of electricity

 Dams are extremely expensive to build.

 Large dams and power plants have a huge negative visual impact on the environment.
 The flooding of large areas of land means that the environment and habitats are destroyed.
 Many people in the valley to be flooded must move.
 Building of large dams may trigger earthquakes.
 Submerging large forests without prior clearance can release significant quantities of
methane, a green house gas.
 When a river flows through two or more countries, a dam in one of upstream countries will
affect the flow of the river in the downstream and may lead to disputes between countries.
 Dams trap sediments reducing reservoir capacity

Biofuels
These are fuels that come from biomass. They include liquid fuels(bioethanol and biodiesel), biogas
and solid biofuels including fuel wood.

Bioethanol
This is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar in plants such as maize and sugarcane. It can be
used as a fuel for vehicles but is more frequently added to petrol to increase chemical values and
improve emissions.

Biodiesel

7
Made from vegetable oils eg rape seed oil and also from recycled used cooking oils. It is used as an
additive to other fuels to reduce levels of air pollution by diesel powered vehicles.

Biogas
This is methane produced by breakdown of organic matter by bacteria.

Solid biofuels
They are also called biomass. They are used in power stations and in the heating systems of houses.

Advantages of biofuels.
 Prices of biofuels are more stable than world oil prices.
 They reduce reliance on imported fuels.
 They are less pollutant than fossil fuels.
 They are ‘carbon neutral’ because the crops absorb carbon dioxide from the air thereby
balancing the emissions from the burning fuel.

Disadvantages of biofuels
 Land that could be used for food production is used to produce crops for biofuel production.
 Food prices increase because of reduced food supply.
 Large amounts of land water and fertilisers are needed for large scale crop production.
 Biofuels have a lower energy output than traditional fuels.

Tidal and wave power

Tidal power plants act like underwater windmills, transforming sea currents into electrical current.
Wave energy is where generators are placed on ocean’s surface and the energy levels are
determined by the strength of the waves.

Advantages
 Power is more predictable than solar or wind power.
 The infrastructure is less obtrusive.

Disadvantages
 The start up costs are very high.
 Ppowepp0wr nrguwerTidal energy is not as dependable as fossil fired or nuclear plants.
 There are concerns about the potential negative impacts on fish populations and other
forms of marine life.
 Sedimentation also builds up behind the facilities.

Fuel wood in LEDCs

In LEDCs about 2.5 million people rely on fuel wood, charcoal and animal dung for cooking. Fuel
wood and charcoal are collectively called fuel wood. Fuel wood provides much of the energy needs
in sub Saharan Africa. Use of wood is also important in Asia. Wood is likely to remain the main
source of fuel for the global poor in the foreseeable future. The collection of wood does not cause
deforestation on the scale as the clearance of land for agriculture but can seriously deplete wooded
areas.

Advantages of fuel wood

 It is often free for the user.
 It does not require high technology equipment.
 It provides an accessible source of fuel for heating and cooking.
 If there is enough land, wood can be renewable and a sustainable energy source.

8
Problems caused by use of wood fuel
 In some areas, trees are being cut more quickly than they can grow back.
 In other places people have to walk for longer distances to collect wood.
 Deforestation may lead to soil erosion and exhaustion of soils.
 Deforestation can lead to desertification.
 Use of fuel wood is the main cause of indoor air pollution in LEDCs.
 Burning wood in confined spaces and inefficient stoves leads to respiratory illnesses.

Case study – Energy supply in China

The demand for energy in China continues to increase as the country expands its industrial base. In
recent years China has adopted a balanced approach to energy supply and to reduce environmental
impact through energy conservation, diversified energy development and environmental protection.
China is constructing clean coal plants at a rapid rate. China has recently built a small experimental
facility at Beijing to remove the carbon dioxide from power station emissions and use it to provide
carbonation for beverages. There is further development of nuclear and hydropower. Total
renewable energy capacity in China reached 226 GW in 2009. (1 Giga watt =1000 Mega watts / 1GW
= 1 billion watts). This included 197 GW of hydroelectricity, 25.8 GW of wind energy, 3.2 GW of
biomass and 0.4 GW of grid connected solar photovoltaic. China’s wind power grew thirty fold
between 2005 and 2009 to become the 2nd largest in the world behind USA. The Three Gorges Dam
across the Yangtse river is the world’s largest electricity generating plant of any kind. The project
was completed in 2008. There are 38 main generators giving the scheme a massive 22 500 MW
generating capacity.

9
 WATER

Water as a resource comes from precipitation. Water has many uses which can be classified into
broad categories such as:

1. Domestic uses
2. Industrial uses
3. Agricultural uses
4. Recreational uses

Domestic uses

 Washing
 cleaning
 cooking
 bathing
 drinking
 watering lawn
 waste disposal
 for swimming pools

Industrial uses

 Cleaning machinery
 cooling purposes
 generating HEP
 mixing with chemicals
 for dilution purposes waste disposal

Agricultural uses

 Irrigation
 watering animals
 dipping livestock
 mixing with agricultural chemicals for spraying
 cleaning milking sheds and pig stys

Recreational uses

 Boating
 cruising
 swimming
 water surfing

10
Differences in water use between LEDCs and MEDCs

 More water is used in agriculture in LEDCs than in MEDCs.

 This is because LEDCs have limitations in capital to put up manufacturing industries.
 Primary industries which include agriculture are a dominant activity.
 In LEDCs the fast growing population needs more food hence irrigation farming must be
practised to produce more food.
 MEDCs use more water in domestic and industrial uses than in LEDCs.
 In MEDCs more is used for domestic purposes than in LEDCs because there is running water
in homes and there more water uses.
 MEDCs also have more water use in industry than in LEDCs because MEDCs have more
industries than LEDCs.

Methods of water supply

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations or by community
endeavours. Water supply comes from surface water(rivers and dams) and groundwater (wells and
boreholes).

1. Reservoirs:
 these include on channel reservoirs (dams) and off channel reservoirs.
 A dam is a barrier that holds back water.
 Off channel reservoirs usually use depressions in the existing landscapes or dug
depressions to store water.
2. Wells and boreholes
 A well or borehole is a means of tapping into various acquifers (water bearing rocks),
gaining access to groundwater.
 They sunk directly down to the water table.
 The water table is the highest level of groundwater.
 Water from groundwater sources can be used directly or stored to build a
considerable water supply. Groundwater is important in arid and semi arid areas.
This is the main source of water in oasis settlements such as those in the Sahara
desert.
3. Desalinisation
 Desalinisation plants are in wide spread use in the Middle East where other forms of
water supply are extremely scarce.
 Most of these plants distill water by boiling using waste gases produced by oil wells.
 Another method of desalinisation is ”reverse osmosis” technique.
 The sea water will still have to undergo convectional filter treatment to rid it of
impurities such as microbes pumped into the sea from sewage plants.

Advantages of desalinisation
 It does not reduce water levels in the river.
 Desalinisation could mean that controversial plans for new reservoirs are shelved.

Disadvantage

11
  Desalinisation plants are expensive.
4. Cloud seeding
 Cloud seeding is a technique used to increase rainfall or snow fall by spraying
chemicals into clouds.
 It can be used directly over an agricultural area where rainfall is required
immediately.
 Mountain or orogenic cloud seeding can be used for snowpack augmentation,
particularly in snowmelt dominated basins like those originating in the Rocky
mountains in the USA and Canada.
5. Households also trap rainwater by other methods thus taking less from piped public water
supply.

Water shortages

Water scarcity is to do with availability of potable water.

Physical water scarcity

This is when physical access to water is limited. This is when demand outstrips a region’s ability to
provide the water needed by the population. Areas associated with physical water scarcity are the
arid and semi arid regions eg Egypt.

Economic water scarcity

This occurs when the population does not have the necessary monetary means to utilise an
adequate source of water.

Problems caused by shortage of water

 Lack of clean, safe drinking water leads to death of people due to water borne diseases.
 Water scarcity threatens world food supplies.
 Water scarcity limits economic development.
 It creates conflicts between neighbouring drainage basin countries.

NB: A country is judged to experience water stress when water supply is below 1700 cubic metres
per person per year. When water supplies falls below 1000 cubic metres per person per year, a
country faces water scarcity for all or part of the year.

Why water scarcity may become more severe in future

 The world population continues to increase significantly increasing the demand for water.
 The increasing affluence of people is increasing the per capita demand for water.
 There is increasing demand of biofuel production – biofuel crops are heavy users of water.
 Climate change is increasing aridity and reducing supply in many regions.
 Many water sources are threatened by various forms of pollution

Water management strategies

 Higher prices for water should be instituded to encourage saving water through systematic
reuse of water.
 Irrigation water should be conserved by using drip irrigation systems.

12
  Recycling water is also important eg the Japanese industry recycles more than 75% of
process water.
 Demand for urban sanitation services could be reduced by adopting low water use systems
eg blair toilets.
 Water rationing can also be done to conserve water.

Case study- Water supply ( The Highlands Water Project in Lesotho)

Lesotho is found in southern Africa and has an abundance of water. It is completely surrounded by
South Africa which is short of water. This led to the Lesotho Highlands Water Project which involved
damming some of Lesotho’s major rivers- most of which flow into the Sengu (known to South
Africans as the Orange river). This damming process has created large artificial lakes. The water from
the lakes is then diverted north (through tunnels under the mountains) to South African rivers.
These rivers lead to the Vaal dam, which supplies the densely populated, urban and industrial region
around Johannesburg and Pretoria. South Africa pays royalities of around US$1.5 million a month for
this water supply. The project objectives were: to provide funds to Lesotho by transferring water
from the catchment of Sengu to South Africa, to generate hydro electric power for Lesotho and to
provide water for irrigation and drinking water supply. Phase 1A of the project was completed in
1998. The Katse dam was built on the Malibamatso river. The Matsoku dam and tunnel collect water
from the Matsoku river to the east. A 48.2 kilometre long tunnel transfers water from the Katse to
the Muela hydroelectric power station in northern Lesotho. A delivery tunnel draws water from
Muela and empties it into rivers that eventually flow into the Vaal river towards Johannesburg.
Phase 1B was completed in 2002. The Mohale dam was built on the Senqunyane river. A tunnel
transfers water between Mohale and the Katse reservoir. The system is interconnected in such a
way that water may be transferred in either direction for storage in Mohale, or for transfer to South
Africa through the Katse reservoir.

13
14
15