Topic 1: Feelings and Ethical Decision-Making Introduction

o Emotions significantly influence moral decision-making.

o Over-relying on feelings can lead to biased or unethical actions.
o Emotions + reason + will = better ethical decisions.
o Moral courage is essential for moral excellence.
Role of Feelings in Moral Decisions
o Positive emotions (e.g., happiness, interest, joy) can inspire good actions.
o Negative emotions (e.g., anger, shame, fear, disgust) can lead to poor decisions.
o Moral emotions: Instinctive and trained emotional responses to moral situations.
Models Based on Feelings
1. Ethical Subjectivism
 Moral truth is based on personal/group feelings or standards.
 Problem: Leads to bias and lacks objectivity.
 Example: A person says “homosexuality is wrong” based only on personal feelings → Ignorant and
biased.

2. Emotivism
 Moral statements = expressions of emotion.
 A belief is considered “true” if held sincerely.
 Problem: Makes moral beliefs meaningless (just expressions, not truth-based).

Reason + Emotion in Ethics

 Feelings alone = unstable → Not a reliable guide.
 But feelings can complement reason.
 Emotions help fuel ethical actions and decisions.
 Ethical decision-making involves:
o Rational analysis,
o Emotional motivation,
o Social influences (e.g., peers).

Other Influences on Ethical Behavior

 Peer pressure can strongly influence ethical choices.
 Students are more likely to act ethically when peers also do so.
Introduction to Reason and Morality
 Rationality: Defined as the capability to reason and make logical decisions based on facts and evidence.
Human beings are rational, which distinguishes them from plants and animals.
 Moral Decisions and Reason: Morality requires decisions backed by sound arguments and reason. We
should act based on reason, considering the best possible reasons for our actions.
 Impartiality in Morality: Ethical decisions must treat all affected individuals equally without bias.
Favoring friends or loved ones over others is morally unacceptable.
 Minimum Conception of Morality: Defined as guiding one's conduct by reason while giving equal
weight to the interests of all individuals affected by the

Models in Ethical Decision Making

 Powers and Vogel’s Six Aspects of Moral Reasoning:
1. Moral imagination
2. Moral identification
3. Moral evaluation
4. Tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity
5. Integration of moral competence with other competencies
6. Sense of moral obligation and moral motivation
 Rest’s Four Psychological Processes:
1. Moral sensitivity
2. Moral judgment
3. Moral motivation/intention
4. Moral character/action
 Scott Rae’s Seven-Step Model: A systematic approach to ethical decision-making.

1. The Role of the Act in Ethics

In ethics, the act refers to the action individuals take based on their ethical decisions. Ethical theories often
assess actions in terms of their consequences, adherence to duties, or alignment with moral virtues. The act is
central to many ethical frameworks because it reflects how ethical principles are put into practice.
2. The Relationship Between Reason and Will
Ethical decisions are guided by reason and will:
 Reason is the intellectual process used to determine what is morally right or wrong. It involves logical
analysis of the facts, ethical principles, and the potential consequences of actions.
  Will is the mental faculty that drives an individual to act on what is rationally determined. While reason
shows what should be done, will provides the strength to carry out those actions despite personal or
social costs.
 Moral courage comes into play when there is a need to act on ethical reasoning despite challenges,
social costs, or opposition.
Reason and will are intertwined, as individuals must first use reason to determine the ethical course of action,
and then exercise will to act on that decision. However, the best reasoning may still require moral courage for
execution.
3. Ethical Principles and the Act
When individuals make ethical decisions, they must consider several key ethical principles that guide their
actions:
 Autonomy: The right of individuals to make decisions about their own lives and bodies. Respecting
autonomy requires individuals to act in ways that respect others’ freedom of choice.
 Beneficence: The moral obligation to do good and promote the well-being of others. This principle
encourages actions that contribute to the well-being of others.
 Non-maleficence: The duty to avoid causing harm to others. Non-maleficence dictates that individuals
must avoid actions that may cause harm to others, either intentionally or unintentionally.
 Justice: The principle of fairness, which ensures that people are treated equally and impartially. This
principle often involves making decisions that promote fairness and equity.
 Fidelity: The principle of being faithful to one’s promises and commitments. It involves acting with
honesty, reliability, and trustworthiness.
 Veracity: The ethical obligation to tell the truth. Veracity emphasizes the importance of honesty and
transparency in relationships.
These principles must be balanced in every ethical decision, as they often come into conflict. For example,
respecting a patient’s autonomy may conflict with beneficence when the patient's choices may harm their
well-being.
4. The Act and Moral Responsibility
The act is not only about choosing what is right but also about taking responsibility for the outcomes of those
actions. In ethical decision-making, individuals are responsible for their actions and the consequences they
produce. Responsibility in ethics entails a few key elements:
 Intentionality: The individual must have the intention to act in a way that aligns with ethical principles.
 Causality: The act must be directly linked to the intended outcomes. This means that actions should
produce the results that were anticipated by the decision-maker.
 Accountability: Individuals are accountable for the consequences of their actions, whether positive or
negative. Ethical behavior requires taking responsibility for one’s actions and being willing to accept the
outcomes.
In moral decision-making, the act also includes understanding the moral responsibility associated with one’s
choices. This responsibility may extend beyond the individual to the broader community, especially when the
actions affect others.
5. Case Study: The Role of the Act in Ethical Decision-Making
Consider a scenario where a healthcare professional must decide whether to disclose confidential information
about a patient. The ethical issue revolves around respecting the patient’s autonomy and confidentiality while
considering the beneficence and non-maleficence towards others who might be at risk (such as a family
member or public health concern).
In such a case, the act of revealing the confidential information would be guided by ethical principles:
 Beneficence: Acting to protect the well-being of others by disclosing the information.
 Autonomy: Respecting the patient’s right to privacy and confidentiality.
 Non-maleficence: Avoiding harm to the patient by maintaining their trust, while also preventing harm
to others by informing them of risks.
The healthcare professional must weigh these principles to make a decision that balances the ethical
imperatives of the situation. The act here is the disclosure of the patient’s information, which should be taken
with full consideration of all consequences, both intended and unintended.
6. Conflicting Principles in the Act
Ethical dilemmas often arise when there are conflicting principles. For example:
 Confidentiality vs. Duty to Warn: A healthcare professional must choose between maintaining
confidentiality or disclosing information that could prevent harm to others. This dilemma requires
careful consideration of the weight of each principle.
 Self-interest vs. Altruism: Ethical decisions may require individuals to choose between personal gain
and the greater good. Moral courage is required when individuals choose altruism over self-interest,
even when the personal cost is high.
7. Moral Courage in the Context of the Act
In situations where moral courage is necessary, individuals must be willing to take action in the face of
adversity or fear of personal or social costs. Moral courage is about standing up for what is right, even when
the consequences of doing so might be harmful to the person making the decision.
For instance, in the workplace, a person may witness unethical behavior, such as discrimination or fraud. The
act of reporting such behavior, even at the risk of retaliation or job loss, requires moral courage. In this case,
the act is morally courageous because it involves standing against the wrong, despite the potential personal
costs.
8. The Importance of the Act in Ethical Decision-Making
The act is where ethical decisions manifest in the real world. Theories like deontology, utilitarianism, and virtue
ethics all assess the act differently:
 Deontologists focus on the adherence to duty and rules when evaluating the act.
 Utilitarians assess the consequences of the act, focusing on the greatest good for the greatest number.
 Virtue ethicists evaluate the act based on the character and intentions of the individual performing the
act.
Topic 3: Moral Courage
2. Defining Moral Courage
 Osswald, S. et al. (2010) describe moral courage as the ability to engage in prosocial behavior that
comes at a high personal social cost, without immediate rewards. It typically arises in situations of
injustice, violation of human rights, and unethical practices.
 Lopez, O’Byrne, and Petersen (2003) define moral courage as the expression of personal values in
situations of dissension, especially when facing powerful individuals or entities.
 Greitemeyer, Fischer, Kastenmueller, and Frey (2006) emphasize that moral courage is often driven by
indignation and a strong sense of right, aimed at enforcing ethical norms, even when social costs are
involved.
3. Characteristics of Moral Courage
 High Social Costs: Moral courage involves personal risks, such as alienation or retaliation, from standing
up for what is ethically right.
 Power Imbalance: Moral courage often occurs when an individual challenges an authority or powerful
entity that is engaging in unethical behavior.
 Indignation and Action: Moral courage is often fueled by a strong emotional response to injustice,
leading the individual to take action, regardless of the personal cost.
4. Examples of Moral Courage
 Fighting Discrimination: Standing up against racial or gender discrimination, even when it risks
personal relationships or professional standing.
 Reporting Unethical Practices: Exposing corruption or unethical behavior in a company or institution,
even when it risks retaliation or harm to one’s career.
 Confronting Abuse or Harassment: Taking action against sexual harassment or violence, even when the
perpetrator holds significant power over the individual.
5. Moral Courage vs. Other Prosocial Behaviors
Moral courage differs from other forms of prosocial behavior due to the social costs involved. While
prosocial behavior is generally viewed positively, moral courage requires challenging authority, risking social
alienation, or facing consequences for taking a stand. This makes moral courage particularly significant in
situations that demand standing up against injustice, even at personal cost.
6. The Role of Reason and Will in Moral Courage
 Reason allows individuals to understand the ethical significance of a situation, while will provides the
strength and determination to act according to those ethical principles.
 Moral courage requires both clear reasoning and the will to act, even when the consequences of doing
so are uncertain or risky.