GENERAL TRANSIMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

GENERATION-is the production of electricity

Source of electricity

[Link] –Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy

[Link] Panel-Light energy to electrical energy

[Link]-Chemical energy to electrical energy

TYPES OF POWER STATIONS

Thermal Power Station

Coal Fired Power Station

Advantages of Coal Fired Power Station

-Its cheaper in terms of running costs than solar and nuclear power station.

-Can be transported to desired locations if not used at source of coal.

- Cheap raw materials.

- cheap to construct.

- by-products can be used for other purposes e.g. ashes for bricks.

-creates employment when people get employed in work place and in the mining of raw materials.

DISADVANTAGES OF COAL FIRED POWER STATION

-it’s a non-renewable source of energy.

-it causes air pollution

-it can cause acid rains

-the starting up time is longer as compared to hydro power station.

-dirty working environment.

-low efficiency -45-50 % of energy is lost.

-needs large body of water for cooling.

-causes land degradation during the mining of raw materials

NUCLEAR POWER STATION (URANIUM)

-Developed to affect the evitable decrease in supply of coal

-it has an advantage that it is not bulk and transportation is relieving easy and hence it is possible to
locate such station in remote areas
-

small amounts produce vast of heat

ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION

-highly efficient e.g. high energy output

-very high energy output as compared to coal

-can be located away from the source of nuclear/RMs

-remote locating benefit the people.

DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION

-very expensive – construction is too costly

-Highly skilled personnel can only be employed.

-Very expensive to dispose by-products (radioactive) because they are very dangerous.

-Non-renewable source of energy.

-Dangerous working environment as people work with dangerous radioactive.

-Need to be located away from settlements.

GEO-THERMAL POWER STATION

ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER STATION

-It is environmentally friendly.

-it is natural.

-the maintenance costs are quite small.

-gas turbines are much simpler in construction and operation than steam.

-there is no standby loses as it operates lead is supplied.

-initial and operating costs are much lower than that of equivalent steam power station

DISADVANTAGES

-reliability is low.

-there is no problem from starting the unit compression to be used.

-net output is low since some generated power is used to drive compressor.

-overall efficiency is low (of about 20% because exhaust gas from turbine contains sufficient heat).

-temperature of combustion chamber is about 3000C so life reduction for the plant facing that
temperature.

OIL FIXED POWER STATION

ADVANTAGES OF OIL FIRED POWER STATION

-it can be transported by all forms of transport.

-less time to reach normal working conditions.

-can be located any place.

-requires less operating staff.

-thermal efficiency is higher than that of steam –power station of some capacity.
DISADVANTAGES

-it’s a non-renewable source of energy.

-its highly flammable adding danger to life.

-it’s an expensive source of energy –high price in world market.

-need of water body.

-uses detergents for cleaning.

HYDRO POWER STATION

-water is used to drive turbines which in turn drive A.C generator.

ADVANTAGES OF HYDRO POWER STATION

-water is a renewable source of energy (has a longer life)

-it is environment friendly and pollution free.

-dammed water can provide reactional facilities as a tourism attraction like fishing.
-irrigation can be possible with dammed water.

-running costs are cheaper than thermal power station.

-reliable and efficient in terms of good rains.

DISADVANTAGES

-initial construction costs are very high especially the dam or lake.

-not reliable in terms of drought or poor rains hence efficiency is reduced since it has much dependence
to weather conditions.

-disturbs the ecosystem especially water life i.e. destruction of ecosystem

-cannot be established much closer to consumers since it needs large bodies of water. this may cause
high transmission costs from supplier.

-people have to be resettled since the station can’t be established near them.

SOLAR ENERGY

-Available to countries mainly those with a lot of sunshine.

CHARGE CONTROLLER /REGULATOR

-it protects the battery and load.

-it stops overcharging the battery.

-prevents over discharging the battery.

-gives the dashboard view to know the conditions of the battery.

PURPOSE OF BATTERY

-stores energy from the solar panel for use.

*solar panel /module reduces energy

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR POWER STATION

-is environmentally friendly as it is natural.

-renewable source of energy.

-location can determined by owner as independent system.

-no need for transmission lines.

-no costs for cables or transformers.

-accessible to any part of the world.

-cheaper in t he sense of source.

-eliminates need for fuel.

-eliminates fuel costs

DISADVANTAGES

-initial costs are very high hence expensive.

-has limitation in use [Link] produce high power e.g. cooking stove.

-can be stolen (risk to systems).

IN ZIMBAWE WE HAVE FOUR THERMAL (COAL) FIRED POWERED STATIONS

Power station Power generation Voltage

Munyati power station 100MW 11KV
Harare power station 90MW 11KV
Bulawayo power station 90MW 11KV
Hwange power station 920MW 1ST stage 10,5kv/2nd 17kv
Hydro power station 750MW 18kv
Kariba power station

WHY DO WE GENERATE ELECTRICITY AT LOWER VOLTAGE?

-for the safety of workers /personnel at the power station.

-for the sake of minimizing insulation costs because it will be less costly to use insulation needed at
lower voltage than higher amount of insulation and cost of insulating generating winding because at
transmission it kills if not insulated.

TRANSIMSSION

-It is the transportation of electricity from one place to another

-A generator produces electrical energy at a voltage of 25kv to 132kv, 275kv, 330kv and 400kv

REASON FOR ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AT EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE

i. To cater for voltage, drop V=IR

ii. To cater for power losses ( )-reduces loses of energy in the lines since voltage is high and
current is low
iii. To reduce the size of the conductor (C.S.A) P=VI
-To produce 20W =5V×4A
-if current is reduced, the needed size of switch gears 20=10×2A -C.S. A. as reduced –less cost
of conductor
Lights 1,5m $35 cost per 5A breaker / switch gear
Plugs 2,5m $45 20A
Stoves 6m $100 30A
N
NATIONAL GRID SYSTEM / NATIONAL SUPPLY SYSTEM
-It is an interconnection of various substations & power station linking the whole country / nation
-the term even includes the generating system as a whole
-the purpose of the grid is to maintain and secure supply of electricity of a standard voltage and
frequency to customers throughout the country

BENEFITS OF GRID SYSTEM

-The whole country is linked with a common extra –high voltage network (the ability to transfer to and
from various parts of the country)
-Centralized control of energy (price)
-Small and in efficient stations are eliminated
-Stand by plants and spares are kept at minimum
-Standardization of voltage and frequency.
-There is supply reliability or security of supply (Loss of supply due to the breakdown can be minimized
ie security supply)
-Electricity is readily available to the isolated communities.
-easy to im port and export electricity.

DISADVANTAGES OF NATIONAL GRID

-High costs of maintenance of lines
-Challenge to the control engineer to maintain a balanced flow of current
-Monopolization
-Initial construction cost is very high (it is expensive to construct the Grid)

TRANSFORMERS
-It is a static device which takes in power at a certain voltage and deliver it at another voltage level
-In its simplest form it consists of separate coils of insulated wire wound on iron core
-high voltage means comparatively low current, so avoiding the necessity for providing very large and
heavy expensive conductors
-The input side is called the primary and the output side is called the secondary
-The transformer in a power station may have a voltage of 25kv and the secondary voltage of 330kv
-When transformers are loaded the coils produces heat
N.B-The very nature of a grid system is that such power has to be transmitted over large distances
-This immediately cause a problem of V.D (voltage drop) to overcome this as high voltage is to be
transmitted to 400kv (330kv) system this as high voltage is to be transmitted to 400kv (330kv) system
known as power grid

DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSMISSION

OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION

OVERHEAD LINES

Advant ages
- It is easy to detect faults.

-cheap to manufacture conductors. (no insulation cover).

-Easy overcoming of obstacles like rivers and small dams & mountains etc.

-cover a wide area

- It is easy to tap-off power

DISADVANTAGES

-increase risk of electrocution

-exposed to weather hazards e.g. storms , cyclones etc.
-visual objections (it disturbs the beauty of the environment)

UNDERGROUND TRANSMISSION
-Underground cables are fully insulated, armored for protection against mechanical damages and must
be corro si on resistant.
-high costs due to copper insulating from corrosion protection digging and filling.
-underground cables are invisible however no building can be built over them and also no big trees.
-heat produced by extra voltages can affect the soil around it than to modify plant growth in the vicinity.
-In the events of faults, the electrical methods have to be used.
-repairs are usually expensive especially for extra high voltage cables.

RADIAL MAIN DISTRIBUTION

-in this arrangement each feeder is controlled by its own automatic breaker.
-a transformer /conductor fault will result in loses of supply in 1 substation, that is supply can be
restored since repair is affected.
-the system is cheaper because less conductors are used (switchgears).
-faults ca n easily be detected

THE RING SYSTEM

-Arrangements allow any transformer to be isolated from inspection or repairs without interrupting the
supply to the other station.
-has many advantages over radial, theseare;
i.
ii. Little or no (v.d) voltage drop
iii.
iv. Smaller c.s.a. of cables
v. Supply reliability because there is alternative

DISADVANTAGES
-too many cables and switch gears
-fault finding is difficult.

OVER HEAD ACCESSORIES (INSULATOR, CLAMP, LIGHTINING ARRESTORS & THE POLE)
-the poles must support the cable or line
-the supports must be capable of supporting cable or line
-this is so when the line carrying a specific loading on 20km/hr blazing
-safety factor of 2.5 for steel and 3.5 for wood must be allowed
-a safety factor of 2.5 means that ice and wind blowing wind . of that which would cause the
support to collapse.
-wood supports are ready for impregnation in creosote to prevent from flame blotting.
-steel towers are made from steel angles section and can be easily fabricated up to all most all heights
by adding extra bottom segments of stresses
-most steel latticetowers used suspension insulators while wood through poles spread about 100m –
400m dep nding on voltage.
-with overhead extra high voltage work, the conductor is made of steel core, aluminum preferred of its
weight.

WOOD POLES
-minimum length is 9m.
-a height clearance from the ground is for lowest conductor have to be maintained under maximum
conditions of 50°C
METAL TAG IS FIXED BIENG THE FOLLOWING
-date of treatment
-serial number under the was supplied
-Registered identifying marks or plant under which people manufacture
-the tag should be kept in place in case the pole deteriorates easily
-the suitable pole top must be designed to prevent a cease of moisture or water through the top of the
pole

SUBSTATION
-located near the center of load to minimize undue length of cables and reduce voltage drop and energy
loses for air insulated open tittles
-handling 330kv of an insulated outdoor substation
-to avoid flashover 4.4m in height or by another means to prevent handling of live wire by unauthorized
persons (reg 91 of 1937)

IMPORTANT REGULATIONS
*ELECTRICITY FACTORIES ACT 1908 OR 1944
[Link] substation shall be constructed /arranged so that no person /other than authorized persons can
obtain access by proper entrance or can interfere with apparatus and conductors from outside
-every substation shall be provided with efficient means of ventilation and kept dry
[Link] substation shall be under control of an authorized person(s) under high control or supervision,
shall enter any part where there maybe danger.
[Link] shall be kept closing and fire proof. They are steel and wood treated with fire resistance plates.
[Link] must open outwards to enable a person to escape in the case of fire.
[Link] must be of efficient size to take in transformer and associated equipment.
[Link] is very important to prevent condensation and game from heating.
[Link] winter to prevent moisture collection door levers can be used. Electricity supply reg 9 of 1937
requires out door substation to be effectively protected by fencing not less than feet height 2,44m high
or other means so as to preview access to lines and apparatus. Adequate lighting must be provided to
reduce the risk of coming in contact with live equipment.
FIRE RISK
-mainly caused through the possibility of lighting the oil in the transformer.
-oil can be set alight by open fault in windings.
-explosions can also occur due to heavy transformer short circuits ,also loose connection and arcing
may vaporize oil thus gas formed will mix the air to produce an explosive atmosphere.
-split oil should be suitably contained for this process, it is common to bed ducts to large outside the
building to allow effective drainage.

OVERHEAD LINES
-is the cheapest form of transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
-line designing and construction involves several engineering disciplines (electrical, civil, mechanical
structures) and must conform to national and international specifications reg and standards.
-these refer to conductor size and tension minimum clearance to ground stresses in support and
foundation insulation level etc

SUPPORTS –PYLONS, POLES, STEEL TOWERS

Insulators
-supports of any overhead line have the greatest impact on visual amenity. They cannot be hidden but
their performance is of objectionable.
-common structural materials are wood, concrete, tabular and rolled section steel and aluminum alloys
-choice is governed by economics availability resistance to deterioration e.g. termites in wood, corrosion
in steel and sometimes by problems of transportation and erection when helicopters are used in regions
of different access.
-the support must be capable of supporting the cable or line this is to be so even when the line carrying
specific I.E.E load at 80km/hr wide blowing.
WOOD POLES
-are usually preferred for low voltage distribution line normally wood poles are unlikely for voltage over
66kv
-the wood poles are impregnated with creosote to prevent deterioration.
-life poles treated with creosote is 25-30 years
-wood is an insulator so that the poles add to insulation strength between conductors and the earth and
render flash over due to lighting less likely.
-height from ground (4.8m) of lowest conductors must be maintained under maximum of 50°c.
-zinc aluminum top cover pole to protect the end again to prevent sinking of water through the top of
the pole

DISADVANTAGES
-if struck by lightning, it may shutter causing complete failure of line.
-the probability can be reduced by earthing all metal supports of the insulators, either individual at any
pole or a connection at continuous earth wire.

STEEL TOWERS
-these are employed where long spans and high supports are needed, normal span of 200-250m are
usual with special cases such as river crossing requiring up to 2km length e.g. river crossing.
-are made from steel angles sections and can be easily fabricated up to any height.
-most steel lattice tower use suspension insulator while wood poles use either type of insulator
depending on the voltage of the overhead extra high voltage network conductors are made of steel
called aluminum.
-Aluminum being preferred because its light.

CONCRETE (reinforced or prestressed on span)

-has the drawback of weight and fragility during transportation.
-material is unlikely competitive unless local production facilities are available.
1.H-pole
-handles up to 66kv insulator of wood on height and diameter
-pole structures of H-type are used where greater strength is required.
-the H-pole is for terminal poles or carrying switch gear or Tx

2.A-pole
-used where great strength is required
-used for lower secondary distribution line.
-if it is used and if steel pylon, itis high voltage transmission
-it’s in terms of broad base only

[Link] POLE
-struts of stay wire are used at the beginning or end of line or where a change of direction takes place in
order to keep the pole upright
-for lower voltage secondary distribution line

4.T-POLE

5. 4-POLE
 DISTRIBUTION PLANT AND EQUIPMENT SUBSTATION
-the energy at high voltage transmitted by the national grid system is fed into grid substation for the
transformation of the transmission voltage to secondary transmission voltage of 132kv and 33kv
-secondary transmission is for large consumer [Link] industry, secondary transmission in step down
or reduce to 11kv and 380v/220v by substations
-the plant in a substation consists of 3 main
i. HV switch gear
ii. The TX C4 sonetics P factor apparatus
iii. Rectifying equipment
-The medium and low voltage switch gear
However, there are interconnection cables metering and protective equipment

REGULATION PERTAINING TO SUBSTATION

ENCLOSURES OR BUILDING INDOOR SUBSTATION
-Leakage oil should be drained out of the room so that pebble basic into an external sump
Reg 422-5 effective means must be provided from draining surplus oil when oil filled apparatus exceeds
25 litres when fire resisting construction and ventilated only to the outside
-Cable trenches should be about 75cm deep. Tx should be separated from HV by a brick wall or fire pivot
pertitions other substations requirements might include
1. HEATING
-Heaters might be included to maintain a temperature of not less than 10°C of switch room with outside
temperature of 0°C
-The heater should be controlled by a thermostat and low temperature
2. lighting
-there should be adequate light especially in H.V chambers
-the recommended illuminance level is 150 lux
[Link]
[Link] notices and treatment of electric shock instruction
[Link] of MA 31V distributed around the plug.

Surge protector
1 to reduce interruption of power supply
[Link] protect utility personnel and general public
[Link] prevent and minimize damage to available electrical equipment.
-they achieve above by diverting voltage surge to the ground and recover itself after the surge is
dissipated.
-the most common type of surge equipment as air gaps, conventional valvearrestors and modern motor
oxide varistors (M.O.V).
*Air gap
-it may take the form of rod or pie type gaps, horn, gaps hemispherical or spherical gaps.
-all use the principle of preset air gap adjusted to give the designed over impulse voltage.
-all air gaps have a disadvantage that they require an interruption to clear the arc following a surge
voltage over the gap.
-this may involve a short interruption of supply service.
*Conventional valves arrestor
-this comprises of series of gap and a stuck of non-linear resistor element e.g thyrideo contained in
porcelain casin.
-they are classified according to the duty level e.g station type, distribution type or line type .
-the series gap ensure that no current flow in the arrestor during normal conditions when a high voltage
occurs it sparks over the gap and a resistor controls the discharge .The arrestor is self extinguished
against normal voltage thus they is no interruption in supply services .
[Link] metal oxide varistors
-use of stock of metal oxide varistor inside the porcelain metal casing with no series spark gap .
-the (M.O.V) is characterized by a very low voltage under normal current while they conduct high
discharge current during a surge voltage . Although more costly valve arrestors giv a higher tolerance on
voltage control on enhance protected margins.
-Both valves and M.O.V arrestor should be connected electrically closer to the item or equipment to give
maximum protection against voltage surge .

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT
High voltage switch gear
-The following can be found in high voltage switch gear e.g O.C.B or air last CB individual units can be
bolted together to form a bark of switch gear .
Busbar coupling switch .
-this one usually offload poles air break switch
-interlocked are normally provided to prevent the switch being operated on load .
-the purpose of these is that in the event of loss supply on the feeder cable or a fault in any of the
transformers ,they can be operated so that the supply can be maintained to vital equipment.
TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS
-there are three types of substations mainly pole mountain ,outdoor and indoor substations.
-pole type consists of a separate structure of a pole at the end of the line , at a suitable light a platform
or roll sheet joint created for placing transformer other accessory are E.R H.D.S fuses on primary side .
-Gang operating switch on H/T side
-lightning arrestor
*switch and fuse for secondary distribution
-this type is suitable for a low rating up to 100kva
-it is cheaper and fast in cost and maintenance
Outdoor types
-generally main substation for primary and secondary transmission
-it is associated with overhead lines
-equipment used is very heavy since they are meant for bulky supplies
-raring for transformer used are normally S.M.V.A or more
-air insulated outdoor open type substation handle 33kv large clearance are required around the busbar
.
-to avoid the likelihood of flash over such substations should be protected by fencing not less than 2.4m
-in high and any other means so as to prevent high lines and operation by unauthorized persons (reg 9
of electricity supply of 1937)
 -in large cities ,substations are normally closed in buildings ,they are generally substations which control
a number of T.T feeder and usually the switchgear on the primary consists of O.C.B and the primary
voltage of 11kv
-The auxiliary of indoor types are ;
i. Operation of protective gear and switch operating solenoids
ii. Emergency lighting in substation in case of failure of supply.

Substation requirements

-the building has to be well ventilated ,constructed of fire proof material and kept dry

i. High voltage switch gears have to be separated from low voltage switch gears e.g transformers are
kept separate from other apparatus by erecting brick walls
ii. Doors should be self closing and fire proof . thus doors are of steel construction and open out to
enable personnel to escape in event of an explosion
- if doors are of wood they should be treated with fire proof paint
-emergency doors to be filled with crash busbar
iii. Ventilation is achieved by incooperation low level and high level outlets in the design
iv. Oil emersed transformers and switch gears an excess of 9092l of oil in any 1 tank receptable or
chamber position to be made for the draining away or removal of any oil which may leak or escape
from the apparatus .one method is to replace tank above a pit containing ballast or grading
chippings which turn to absorb leaking oil .
v. In indoor substation ,it may be vital to provide fire extinguishing methods ,e.g flooring system using
gas as an extinguishing agent .
vi. Regulation 10 of the electricity supply states that where high voltage is transmitted /converted or
regulated or otherwise controlled constructional provisions are required for enclosure of switchgear
,cannot be opened by a key .
vii. Conductors and apparatus in indoor substations are to be constructed and protected and so
arranged that when the door cover is opened the person opening the door or cover can not come
into accidental contact in metal electrically charged at high voltage
viii. Other substation requirements might include:
[Link] –heater might be included to maintain temperature of not less than 10°c of switch room
in outside temperature of 0°c .The heater should be controlled by a thermostat at low temperature.
[Link]-there should be adequate light especially of the high voltage chamber .
[Link] recommended illuminance level of lux
[Link]
[Link] notices and treatment of electric shock instructions
[Link] of 13A S/O distributed around the building

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

CROSS JET EXPLOSION POT
-made from insulating of channels on one side that act as arc splitters.
-the arc splitters are provided to increase the length of the arc thus facilitating arc extension
OPERATION
-when faults occur contacts separate
-an arc is struck in the top of the pot
-gas is generated because of heat produced exiting pressure on the oil in the back passage.
-the moving contact uncovers the arc splitters duct fresh oil therefore driven sideways into the
splitters resulting in extinction .
ADVANTAGES OF OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER
-oil absorbs the arc energy to decompose into gases to excellent cooling properties .
-oil act as an insulator
-surrounding oil presents cooling surface in close proximately to the arc
-silent operation
-low level of skill is required for maintenance
-very robust

DISADVANTAGES OF OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

-oil is highly flammable
-maintenance intensive
-not portable
-carbon remains in oil to form a sludge limited by temperature changes
-changing the oil during maintenance can be very messy

PLAIN BREAKER
-when fault occurs ,moving contact move to break the circuit .an arc is struck by the two contacts.
-the arc vaporize the oil mainly into hydrogen gas
 -the hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc cools the circuit column and determination of
the medium of contacts
-the gas set up the turbulence in the oil helps to accumulate the arcing products from the bath
-as the oil arc lengthens the dielectric strength is increased

AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER

Operation

-these employ high pressure air blast as an arc generation medium

-the spring contacts are opened in a flow an air blast establish by the opening of a blast valve

-the air blast cools the arc and always occurs the arching products .
-this process increases the dielectric strength of the medium between contacts and prevents arc from
resting.

ADVANTAGES

-fire risk eliminated

-arching products are removed completely

-dielectric strength grows rapidly

-arching time is small because of rapid growth of the strength between contacts

-the energy supplied for arch extinction is obtained from high pressure independent of the current
interrupted

DISADVANTAGES

-air has relatively low arc quenching properties

-considerable maintenance required for the auxiliary equipment which supply the air blast

-noisy operation

SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE CIRCUIT BREAKER

SF6 Operation
-in the closed position contacts are surrounded by sf6 gas at low pressure of 2,8kg/cm

-when the contacts move and the arc is struck across the contacts

-the movement of contacts is synchronized with the opening of a valve

-this allows the sf6 gas at a pressure of 14kg/cm from the reservoir and get into the arc interruption
chamber

-the high pressure flow sf6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons with the arc path to form mobile negative

ions .

-This results with the medium between contacts quickly build uphigh dielectric causing arc extriction

-the breaker is closed by spring action .

-The fixed contact is hallow and fitted with an arc horn.

-moving contact is also hallow with rectangle holes to allow for sf6 gas to escape after flowing along
and across the arc

-tips of contacts and arcing horn are coated with copper tungsten to arc resistant

-sf6 gas is costly ,so its reconditioned a rebclain by suitable auxiliary system after each operation

-Advantages

-superior arc generating

-dielectric of sf6 is 2-3 times greater than H of air house its ability to interact large current

-noiseless operation

-fire risks eliminated

-no carbon deposits

-low maintenance costs and minimum auxiliary equipment

Disadvantages

-costly

-more equipment needed for claiming and recondition the gas

-used with 115kv-230kv and power rating of 10MVA to 20MVA

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER

-In vacuum circuit breaker ,the contact and the arc control denses of the traditional circuit breaker of
replaced by a vacuum interrupter

-the vacuum interrupter is a sealed vessel with insulating walls which contain two contacts insulating

-one of the contacts is fixed to one of the end of the shield and the other contact is free to travel in
aerial direction and the vacuum is maintained by metallic ballons connected between the moving
contact and the other end shield

-inside interrupters are metallic screens between the contacts and the inside walls of the insulating tube

-vacuum circuit breaker has a contact gap of the order of 10mm for voltage ratings up to 12kv.

-when operating within its designed breaking current limit the contact gap in the vacuum interrupter
recovers its full dielectric strength within one immersed of current zero

-due to the small contact gap and the physical characteristics of two vacuum arc , the arc voltage is very
low , leading to much lower energy generation then exists in oil or arc circuit breaker

FUSES

-these after a simpler form of over current air excess current protection

-they are widely used in domestic and industrial installation .

-they compromise of a fuse wire which is designed to melt or blow under fault conditions
DISCRIMINATION (314 AND 533-6)

-means that in the event of a heavy load fuse or circuit act only its load fuse or circuit breaker will
operate in louse willing (i.e) if such a fault occurs on any lighting circuit the nearest fuse will blow or the
MCB trips . in this way only that particular circuit will affected and so avoiding plunging the whole house
in darkness .

OVERHEAD ACCESSORIES

-this purpose is to support overload lines . They are fixed on cross aims main cord .

-they are made of grazed china arc or glass arc of various sizes change and voltage rating

TYPES OF INSULATORS

[Link] insulators

-they are normally fixed on steel towers or pylons to support overhead lines of external high voltage

-they are made of disk which can be added to suit the voltage rating of each line .One disk can with
stand 11kv

2. Pin type

-they do not take any tension

-they are meant to support conductors fixed into intermediate poles

-some are made of low tension and of high tension

[Link] /tension insulators

-normally used at staring and last ending of pole or where line changes direction

-on domestic distribution they are used on the pole termination and the roof of the house to support
whether deck cables ,3 ℎ shackle insulators are normally coupled d-iron

[Link] /stay insulator

-normally fixed at a height of 3m from the ground.

-their purpose is to avoid the flow of leakage current to the ground

[Link]

-they are used for conductor tensions purposes . they are normally used where conductor branch to the
transformer lightning arrestors etc

Surge Arrestors
-they they protect the line and equipment from surge

-they should be capable of automatically repeating the action as frequent as possible

Types

[Link] gap arrestor -has a medium pressure gap of 1.5kv gap 10m-11kv gap 15m

[Link] –made of thyrite which is an inorganic compound of a ceramic nature

-at low current first resistance will be very high but this resistance can drop rapidly to high current
.Current increase 12.6 times when voltage doubles

[Link] valve arrestor

-it consists of flat disc made of ferrow materials separated by mica rings .This ferrow material is made up
of clay and mixture of powdered conducting material substance

-the discharge occurs in the capillaries of the materials and is thus constromed to be a glow discharge in
which there is a voltage drop of 350v per unit

-the narrow gaps between the blocks are sufficient total width to prevent flash over due to normal
voltage so that there is no current flow in the arrestor and normal voltage

-this is very effective and cheap .

Oxide film arrestsor (pillar type)

-the pillars are in a column of 56mm in diameter and 2inch and 50mm length per kv

-the tube has series of spark gap

-for high voltage several units are placed in series .

*NB-Overhead lines are sometimes fitted with guard wires where there is road crossing /railway
crossing , river canal and telephone line

-they are fitted so that in the event of any phase conductor breaker due to wind , storm etc .it will first
come into cradle ground which is earthed making live conductors dead by tripping the protective
devices

-types of guards are cradle e.g trolley guarding ,bird guarding ,cage guarding .

UNDERGROUND CABLES

i. Direct laying (trench)

ii. Solid laying
iii. droway
solid laying

-the trenh is dug and the ttough of china clay are placed in a row and the cables are layed out in those
troughs

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

[Link] 3 wire system

-A 3 wire phase supply a compties of three waves from each separated by 120°

-the supply of the secondary transformer is normally a delta connected to feed 3 phase system supply
balanced loads

-delta waves is whereby 6 ends are such that the end of first coil is connected to the start of the 3 rd coil
and the 3rd coil is connected to the start of the 4th coil

-in this system there is no need of a neutral because of its balanced system , every example of loads
which can be connected to this system is the three phase motors because their winding are perfectly
balanced and no neutral needed

-also applicable to transmission system of lines where there is no need of neutral

3 Phase 4 wire system

-the 11kv three wire supply is stepped down by the use of star delta transformer to a 380v four wire
supply wire with the star point connected to earth

-two reasons for connecting neutral are;

[Link] provide a path for current if the system is unbalanced

[Link] enable single phase loads to be connected that neutral and either of the three phase red or yellow
or blue

-The main advantage of a three phase four wire system is that both 3 φ load 1φ loads can be connected
to the system

-the 3φ and neutral can be taken into large users such as small factories block of offices ,flats and large
commercial premises,

Reasons for balancing load

[Link] prevent any one phase from being overloaded thereby keep the size of the cable used to minimum

[Link] reduce the current in the neutral

[Link] keep down distribution

Advantages of 3 φ over 1φ(phase)

1.3φ transmission line is more efficient and requires less copper

[Link] chance of power becoming zero in single phase is undesirable

3.1φ motors are not self-starting while 3 phase motors are self starting

[Link] torque of the 3 phase motors is rotating uniformly while in 1 phase it is pulsating

[Link] is easy to synchronise the 3 phase alternator

6.3 φ motor of same output shall occupy less space and take less current and are light and cheaper

7.1 phase motor can be taped from 3 φ

ISOLATION AND SWITCHING

Isolation-is the cutting off of the electrical supply to a circuit or equipment by making dead those parts
which are live or normal service in order to insecure the safety of those working on the equipment .IEE
Regulation 476-01 requires that every installation shall be provided wih a means of isolation .

The regulation identify four separate types of switching which are

[Link] for isolation

[Link] for mechanical maintenance

[Link] switching

[Link] switching

Emergency switching and (4)

-a means of switching off for mechanical maintenance is required where mechanical maintenance may
involve a sis of burns or of injury from mechanical movement and may be required for lamp
replacement

LOW VOLTAGE SWITCH GEAR 3 PHASE AND 1 PHASE

[Link]

-this is a mechanical device which is operated manually and is used to open and close a circuit load

-this can be a double switch or triple pole switch in which the moving switch contacts are mechanically
linked ,isolators are manually with red or green knob
[Link] switch

-it is mechanical device which is operated manually for the purpose of switching ,it has double poles
which are mechanically linked

-it is normally used in single phase system ,cutting off both the phase conductor and the neutral
conductor

[Link] fuse

-it is an extension of the isolator .These fuses come after the switch

-the fuses are on the load side of the supply

[Link] switch

-the fuse or fuses from part of the moving blades .They can be used on 1 phase and 3 phase system
EXCEESS CURRENT PROTECTION DEVICES L.V SWITCH GEAR

-Over current occurs two ways which are ;

i. over load current

ii. short circuit

-Overload current usually occurs in heatly circuit and can be 2 to 3 times the rate current .Short circuit
occurs when there is a dead short between live conductors i.e phase to phase or phase to neutral and
may be hundreds or thousands times the rate current

-the fault current should be interrupted quickly and the current isolated safely before the fault current
causes temperature rise which might damage insulation or termination of conductors

-the general principal is that the productive device must be placed at a point reduction incurrent
carrying capacity of circuit

-there are general exception to the general rule that is if the opening at the circuit might cause a greater
danger than the overload itself e.g a circuit feeding electromagnet in a scrap yard yard

-the other example of exception is where ceiling rose supplies a thinner flee.

-reg 130-03-01 states that “where necessary to prevent danger ,every installation and every circuit .
there of shall be protected against over current by devices which

i. -operate automatically at values of current which are suitably related to safe current rating of
the circuit
ii. And are of adequate breaking capacity and where appropriate making capacity
FUSE TERMINOLOGY

Fuse – is a device which has a weak link cuts off the circuit when more than predetermined value
current flow in a circuit when excessive current flows

Fuse element / fuse wire

-that part of a fuse which is designed to melt and open a circuit when excessive current flows through it
i.e more than normal working current .

Current rating

-this is the maximum current which the fuse will carry an indefinite period without undue deterioration
of the fuse element

Fussing current –this is the maximumcurrent that will cause the fuse element to heat and melt or blow

Fusing factor – is the ratio of the fusing current to the current

Fuse factor = *NB is greater than unit

Breaking capacity rating

-is the maximum prospective current rating stated by the manufacture that the fuse or M.C.B must be
able to break or make such a current without damage to its surrounding by arcing ,overheating ,or the
scattering of hot particles for M.C.B ,it is normally written as e.g M6KA or M9-9KA

LRT –Through energy –is the specific energy to which a protected circuit is subjected during pre-
circuiting

[Link] semi enclosed fuse (to BS3036)

-it consists of a porcelain or plastic fuse carriers and a fuse base

-the fuse element is fitted on a fuse carrier which has a pair of brass pins which push fit into a fuse base

-the fuse element can be of copper ,however other material which can be used in fuses are lead ,zinc ,
silver , antimay , tin , aluminium

-the fuse carries the removable part which holds the fuse wires and fits into base when inserted while
the fuse base is the unit in which the incoming and outgoing line or phase is connected

-the fuse carries arc either color coded or have the current rating written on them.

-the fuse base carriers are made of different sizes in order to prevent wrong fuse carriers fitted on
wrong fuse base 5A white ,15A blue ,20A yellow ,30A red ,45A green maximum fault capacity of about
2KA

Advantages

i. Fuse element is cheap to replace

ii. Cheap in terms of low initial cost
iii. There is less maintenance because they no moving part
iv. Easy to check if fuse wire is intact

Disadvantages

i. Fuse of incorrect rating can be replaced

ii. They can deteriorate with age i.e they can break
iii. They lack discrimination (because of their time /current characteristics ) which are unsuitable ,
surges of starting motors can break the fuse wire
iv. Fuse carriers and holders can be damaged due to arcing in the event of overload
v. It has higher fuse factor than catridge fuse i.e installed cables are larger than catridge fuses
vi. Not advisable for short circuit protection
vii. They can not be replaced quickly

Catridge fuse (to BS 1361 and 1362)

-it is made of a catridge fuse container (porcelain )with metal end caps .the fuse wire is attarched to the
caps in a tube filled with extinguishing powder (silica)the whole unit is sealed off.

-the arc extinguishing powder is a good insulating heat resistant material , the fuse element will melt or
streak due to some faulter overload thereby breaking the circuit

-the arc due to melting or breaking of the fuse element is quenched by the powder .if the fuse has
blown it needs replacement by a fresh unit

Applications –BS1361 is for industrial and domestic appliances

-BS1362 is for 13A plugs tops

Advantages –it has accuracy in breaking at rated values

-the physical size is small

-there are no moving mechanical parts

-not prone to deterioration

-the arc is extinguished in a sealed unit when interrupting faults

Disadvantages –not suitable for very high fault current

-more expensive to replace than rewireable fuse

-the BS1361 type fuse is replaced with high rated fuse

-BS1361 type can be fuse shorted out with silver foil

High breaking capacity fuse (HBC)

-it is something refused as high rating capacity fuse . it consists of a ceramic fuse filled of special quartz
power

-the fuse element is made of silver and is soldered or between two end caps . the fuse end caps are long
type .it has an indicating element which shows when the fuse has blown

-when the fuse blow there is a fusion of the silver vapour produced with the falling powder so globes of
high resistance material are formed in the path of the arc , causing it to be extinguished

-the powder has dual role of keeping the element cool of quenching the arc

-this type of fuse protect circuit from heavy loads they can be used in high voltage system .breaking
capacity up to

Advantages

i. It can discriminate between starting surge and overload

ii. It is very fast in acting (high speed and operation )
iii. It reliable in performance
iv. The fuse element dies not deteriorate
v. It has no moving mechanical parts to go wrong to maintain

Disadvantages

i. They are expensive

ii. Not easy to see if the fuse has blown
iii. When they blown ,they need replacement
iv. It must be withdrawn to insulate the circuit
 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER

MCB Reg

-it is a mechanical device for carrying ,making and breaking current under normal and abnormal
conditions

-it has two methods of detecting over current and both are normal in co-operated in the unit .these are

i. Magnetic tripping –for short circuit protection

ii. Thermal tripping –for overload protection

Magnetic tripping

-Current flows through a solenoid which has a coil of a few turns of heavy gauge copperwith an iron slug
in a healthy situation

-the current which flows through the coil is not sufficient starting to produce a significant magnetic flux
to trip

-if the current increases to a predetermined value ,the magnetic field increase to cause

Motor regulation

-16th editions page 102 Reg 552-01-02

-every electric motor having a rating exceeding 0.3kw shall be provided with control equipment in
cooperating means protection against overload of the motor. This requirement does not apply to an
incorporated in an item of current using equipment complying as a whole with an appropriate British
standards.

Reg552 01-03

-Except where a failure interrupt a danger , every motor shall be provided with means to provide
automatic restarting after stoppage due to drop in voltage of failure of supply where unexpected
restarting of the motor might cause danger .these requirements did not preclude arrangement for
starting a motor at intervals by an automatic control device , where the adequate precaution are tken
against danger from unexpected danger .

Reg 552 10-01 1

-All equipment include cable of heavy circuit carry the starting ,accelerate and loading current of the
motor shall be suitable with the current at least equal to full load current rating of motor when rated in
accordant with British standard

-where the motor in intend for intermittent duty and for frequent starting and stopping shall be taken
for any accumulative effects of starting and stopping shall be taken for any accumulative effects of
starting and breaking upon temperature rise of the equipment of the circuit

Reg 525 01-01 page 81

-the permissible voltage drop limit between supply terminal current using equipment id 4% of normal
voltage supply

-a great voltage drop maybe accepted for a motor during starting

AC 3 PHASE MACHINES

Construction

Stator

-it is made of high silicon steel clamped together and slots are cut in it with which the stator windings
are placed

-the iron called coils (windings ) all poles are arranged apart ,connected to AC motor 3 phase supply ,
either in star or delta connection .the stator is wound for 2,4,6,8 poles depending on the speed required

[Link] squirrel cage type

-the copper or alluminium bars are short circuited by copper /aluminium rings which make it a cage
form . the water conductor maybe die cast in alluminium to form the end rings in one operation

[Link] type

-this type has laminated coiled rotor with slots which hold suitable winding which are going to be slip
rings

-the windings are connected to stator via slip rings with brush gear , the speed and torque can be
controlled by stator which control motor stator

-the motor windings are short circuit when the machine reaches the full speed and the brush gear is
lifted clear off slip ring

-this type enable motor to have high starting torque

Principles of operation

-when 3 phase supply is given by supply to stator , the rotating magnetic field produced in the stator
because the iron cored coiled

-winding or poles are arranged 120° apart and since the supply is alternative each pole will become fully
energized at different times in relation to the other giving this effect of magnetic field rotating around
the coil .the speed of rotating of the magnetic field is called synchronous speed

-the speed is dependent on two factors which are :

1. supply frequency

[Link] of pairs of poles

-this rotating field produces induced e.m.f in motor windings and causes induced current to circulate
since there is no electrical connection to motor

-the induced current in the motor are set up by the effect of electromagnetic induction from the stator
.that is why it is called ‘’ INDUCTION MOTOR’’ .this rotor induced current produces magnetic field
around the conductor and the magnetic reaction between this field and the main field around causes
the motor to move . By lenz ‘s law ,these rotor induced currents tend to oppose the action producing
them therefore they circulate in such a manner that torque is produced in the rotor tending to cause it
to follow the rotating field

-the rotor can not rotate at synchronous speed since its movement depends on the cage bar being cut
by main rotating field flux
-the speed of this motor is constant . the interaction of the two fields(the stator rotating field and the
motor field ) is responsible for the motor moving

-the turning effect is called torque

Synchronous speed

-is the speed of rotating of magnetic field that speed of AC motor on which rotating field flux rotate
when 3 φsupply is supplied to that stator

= F=frequency p=number of pair of poles NS =synchronous speed

Slip speed-is the difference between the synchronous speed and actual rotor speed and is usually
expressed as a percentage

% = X×100

-It is 2% to 4 % at stand still and 100% that is unity when running

NS is the synchronous speed

NS is the rotor speed

Rotor speed (Nr)

-is the actual speed of the rotor (the rotor of an induction motor can not travel synchronous speed
hence the need rotor is said to slip in speed behind the synchronous speed )

TORQUE

-It is the turning of twisting movement of a force about an axis and types of toque mainly :

[Link] torque – is the torque required to start a motor at load or no load

[Link] torque- is the torque required to run the motor at normal speed and normal load
Example 1 ;

-calculate the synchronous speed in revs per minute of a six pole if supply frequency is 50Hz

Solution

×
= =

=100 r. p.m

Example 2

*calculate the synchronous speed of z 10Hp ,3 phase ,50 cycle 380v ,4 pole induction motor

Solution

= =

=1500 r.p.m

AIR GAP

-the radial air gape is uniform and only large enough (usually less than 2,5 mm depending on rating ) to
give magnetic and rotational force present over the operational speed range

-it is the space between the stator and the rotor .neglecting the e.m.f of the iron , the flux distribution
produced by the acting air gap would give distribution produced by a since wave of flux density and this
would move like travelling wave around the periphery at synchronous speed

WOUND MOTOR
-The rotor is mounted on the shaft in bearings

-the winding is either star or delta connection

-the three phase winding is placed in slots

-every coil of the winding will experience flux changes with the star winding excited

-all the star coils (windings) contribute to the flux ,their combined effect being convenient treated in
terms of resultant mmf

-As flux rotates each rotor phase senses a flux linkage varying between positive and negative maxima of
supply frequency

-the phase magnetic circuits are interdependent and induced voltage rises and falls in sequences .

-with rotor hold in position and its circuit closed current will flow in rotor phases , the mmf opposing the
stator mmf.

-the force of the conductor will be urged in the direction of the field motion

-if the resultant torque developed in greater than the mechanical resisting torque to motor will
accelerate to some speed .

-the field conductor is reduced to NS – Nr as far as the rotor coils are concerned they experience a
slower rate of flux charge which lower the induced mmf , current and frequency

-the torque resulting from the induced current reduced the relative motion which is infact responsible
for current and torque in the first place

-under the north pole conductor current is in one direction and under south pole it is in the opposite
direction and if all the conductors are shorted at the ends of slot paths be provided for conductor
current streams to coalesce

Slip

-since motor emf and frequency is proportional to the relative motion the actual values at speed Nr
become

x still emf

-Co efficient (Ns-Nr)/Ns =S is called the fractional or per unit slipping back relative to the rotating field

-in practice the operating speed is very close to synchronous so that slip is quite small even at full load
-an efficient machine has 0.001 or 1% slip .if slip were to become zero ,there would be no relative
motion to produce rotor emf , current torque

- unless current is supplied ,conduction at synchronous speed (s-0) is not possible

CONSUMER INSTALLATION

Block diagram of consumer terminal arrangement

*please note consumer main switch can be a switch fuse from installed between meter and D.B

Service cable - is the cable which feeds in power to the installation and it can be underground cable or
overhead cable

Main switch gear

-every installation of whatever size must be controlled by one or more main switches

-IEE Reg 470-1 requires that every consumer ‘s installation shall be adequately controlled by switch gear
which is readily accessible to the consumers ad which shall incorporate ;

[Link] against over current (short circuits and overloads)

[Link] and switching

[Link] against electric shock

-this must be readily accessible to the consumers as near as possible to the supply cut outs
-electricity at work Reg 1989 says that suitable measures shall be available for cutting off the supply of
electrical energy to any electrical equipment

-the type and size of main switch gears depends upon type and size of the installation and its total
maximum load

Distribution Board (D.B)

-is a unit compromising of one or more protective devices against over current and ensuring the
distribution of electrical energy to the circuits

*these three types ;

[Link] fitted with renewable fuse links

[Link] fitted with ABC fuse links

[Link] fitted with circuit breaker tray

-the position of D.B should be near to the centre of the load

-it is intended to control in order to reduce length and cost of all circuit cables but must be balanced
with the cost of main cables

-the length between supply intake position and D.B should be considered so that the V.D does not
exceed the permitted max of 2.5% of normal voltage of the supply (IEE Reg 522 – 8 ) 15 th edition D.B 4%
525 01-02 16th edition IEE Reg 461-5 and 462 -2
-this is a typical supply arrangement of a multistory building

-the rising mains are elongated busbar chains supplied in length to suit the height between floors

-Busbars must be free to expand and contract and must be fitted with flexible copper strip .

-busbars are either round or rectangular copper or aluminium bars

-conductors of busbars trunking must be identifiable

-the fire barriers must be provided where trunking passes through walls and ceilings

-fire barriers must be provided at each floor level to avoid the spread of fire where rubber or PVC cables
are connected to busbars or operating at comparatively high temperature .

-the insulation and sheath be removed for a distance of 150mm from the connection and replaced by a
suitable heat resisting insulation

-IEE recommends that the maximum operating temperature should note exceed 90°C

Tariffs

-tariffs is the scale of electrical energy provided by the supply authority

-there are two charges in cost of electrical energy i.e standing charges include –salaries and wages
interest on the borrowed capital by plant

-rent and rates of buildings ,premises ,ground covered by pylons

-taxes

-depreciation of plant

-services such as water and oil

-cost of fuel(oil , coal ,nuclear)

-replacement of plant and maintenance etc

-there can be some other extra profit margin to carter for the purchases of new equipment
,development costs and levies etc
-the cost of electricity to consumers was once based upon flat rate tarrifs i.e there was a fixed cost to
say $6 per unit for all electricity used for this tarrif is now largely absolute

-generally electricity cant be stored , generation plant must always be available to give supply to
consumers . the cost of this plant spread over a number of years must be recovered by making a
minimum constant charge whether energy is used or not

-when energy is used ,fuel is consumed at the generating station ,this cost of fuel must be recovered by
making a running charge proportional to the energy consumed

Total charge =a +(b x energy consumed)

-this is called a two part tarrif and is the basis of the most modern tarrif

Charge –is determined by the size of the generating plant and the transmission system

Size – is determinedby the load connected by the consumers after applying a diversity factor takes into
account the fact that it is most unlikely that all connected plant will be in use at one given time

-diversity factor of a consumer is equal to

-for a supply system it is unlikely that all consumers will have their maximum loads at the same time

-diversity factor for a supply system=

-this factor is generally much greater than units

Example 1

The maximum demand for all consumers connected to the generating station 30000kw .as they do not
occur at the same time a diversity factor of 15 can be applied . what will be the maximum load or rating
of the generator ? if the capital charge of generating is $9 /kw ,what will be the charge /kw of maximum
demand to the consumers?

Solution

Generating =

=20000kw

Maximum demand charge =

 = = $0,60/kw

-charge (a) is applied to a tariff by analyzing the actual cost of plant considered here is the possibility of
plant becoming obsolete /redundant ,modernization ,recognition ,load increases etc

-the equipment is given an economic life of 10 to 20 years

-the capital cost of plant is spread over this economic life giving annual figure for depreciation to which
the interest must also be added

-charge (a) depends upon the cost of plant and is therefore related to the plant rating which in turn
depends upon the maximum demands if there will be a charge /kw or kva of maximum demand

Load factor =

Example 2

A consumer with a maximum demand of 500kw consumes 4800 units of electricity per day .what is the
load factor ? if the load factor is improved to 66 % ,what will be the saving on the MD charge if the tariff
charge is $10 /kw of maximum demand

The energy used remains un altered

Solution

-number of units a day if MD is maintained =MD x hours

=500 x 24

=12000kw/h

Load factor =

=40%

If load factor is improved to 66 %

Units of MD maintained =

= =7200kwh
,
 Therefore MD = = 300kw

Therefore reduction in MD =500-300=2000KW saving

=200x10=$2000

POWER FACTOR (P.F)

-in an AC circuit ,a lower power factor (cos θ) will require a high current (I) to flow for a given power

P=VI cosθ with constant V but I will be reduced if cos θ is improved i.e brought near unit .thus a low
power factor causes excessive current to be drawn for a given power and this will require plant and
equipment of a higher current rating

-it is for this reason that plant and equipment are rated with kvA and not in kw , to enable plant rating to
be kept within reasonable rating and also have spare capacity available for consumers , the supply
authority encourages consumers improve their PF by having MD charges per kvA instead of kw . thus for
the given kw power demand a lower PF will give a high kvA MD voltage into the tariff ,sometimes the
tariff will include a penalty clause for poor PF working and sometimes a kvA meter will be installed and
charge made for reactive kvA .the industrial two part tariff is used upon the fixed charge per month or
per year per kvA of maximum demand plus an additional charge per unit used

EXAMPLE

A factory has a maximum demand of 200kva when operating at a PF of 0.7 lagging . if the PF improved
equipment is installed to give a PF of 0,[Link] will be the annual rating in the electrical change ?

What will be the total electricity charge in the year after the PF has been improved if the factory has the
load factor of 50% .the tariff is $10 per kva of maximum demand per year .plus 2.5/unit consumed

Solution

M.D at 0.7 PF =200KVA

Therefore kw =kva PF=200X0.7

=1400KW

At 0.95 PF M.D =KW/PF =

.
 = 1474KVA

Therefore saving = 526x$10= $5260

M.D charge at 0.95 pf =1474x$10

=$14740

Load factor 50% therefore Average KW =KW M.D x LOAD FACTOR

=1400x 0.5 =700kw

Therefore no of units =1year=8760 hours =700x 8760

=613200kwh

Therefore the unit cost =613200x2.5

=$153300

Total annual cost =$14740 + $153300

=$168040

[Link] Limiter

-the charge is based on the size of the circuit breaker installed at the supply intake point by the supply
authority

-there is no meter on the installation

-e.g a lamp load limited domestic consumer is charged at a monthly fixed amount of $2307 (according to
april 2004 billing by ZPC ).the charge includes 5% capital development levy ,6% rural electrification levy
and 15% vat tax

-load limited domestic users in zim have the following circuit breaker ratings :1A ; 2.5A;7.5A;10A;
15A;22.5A and 30A

[Link] rate tariff

-a tariff compromising of a single kwh rate for small supplies given specified purposes e.g access lighting
, power ,catering etc

-metered circuits of lighting in zim have (a) fixed monthly charge plus (b) energy consumption per kwh

-unmetered circuits of public lighting in zim have a fixed monthly charge per watt of installed capacity of
luminaire
[Link] tariff

-a tariff in which the charge is based on a series of reducing kwh rates applying successive kwh blocks of
a given size of the blocks of a given size supplied during a specified period

-the size of the blocks may vary according to installed load , maximum demand and size of the premises

-however when applied to smaller supplies usual practice is to employ blocks of a fixed size for all
consumers

-it is applied to small industrial premises if separately metered to motive power and heating of
residential premises

-it is also applied to flood lighting , outside signs and display lighting where P.F is not less than 0.9

-each quarter a certain number of units can be e.g $194 per unit

-thereafter , each additional unit per quarter can be $160

[Link] demand tariff

-this type of tariff is designed for consumers with higher levels of demand (usually above 40kva) and
involves the separate measurements of energy and maximum demand

-the demand maybe recorded in kva or kw in which case there will be a separate charge for reactive
power

-the demand charge maybe based on the consumers annual demand but the more usual practice is to
the monthly demand with winter charged at a higher rate than those in summer

-when maximum demand is established at night terms maybe available where the excess of daytime
demand at a lower rate are linked to the replacement cost of the supply industry ‘s fuel and adjusted
monthly

-the cost of assets local to the supply may be recovered through service capacity charge

Maximum demand – is the average recorded a short period usually the M.D metering device register
the total kwh taken over a pre- determined period divided by the period in hours

-the M.D pointer has a slipping pointer which when recording period is on ,it moves over an almost
circular scale to register the average demand along with it ,it moves together with a slipping pointer

-at the end of the recording period , the pointer is automatically reset to zero , the sloping pointer
remains at its highest kw demand during the recording period .
-when a new recording period starts then the mid pointer moves around if kw demand is higher than
the previous , it picks up the slopping pointer to record the new high figure .

[Link] part tariff

-is based on the charge made for maximum demand (integrated over 15min or hour ) and for the
actual energy consumed in kwh

-it is a tariff with a standing charge payable monthly or quality plus a single kwh rate

-the standing charge maybe related to installed load , maximum power required , size of premises or
fixed for all consumers on the tariff

Example

An industrial consumer has an annual consumption of 860000units (kwh) and a maximum load demand
of 800kva . the tariff applicable to this at $1,15c/unit .calculate the overall costs per unit.

Solution

Maximum demand charge =$8x$800=$6400

Units charge =$1.15x860000 = $9896

Total charge =$6400 + $9896 =$ 16296

$
Overall charge per unit =

=$1,90

Power factor

-poor p.f results in more current flowing in cables than in necessary hence requires larger cables which is
uneconomical

-power factor improvement results in economic advantage

-the supply authority charge the consumer on his kva demand to induce him to improve load P.F

-power factor improvements does result in improvement and stabilization of the consumers supply
voltage (at supply terminal) which leads to a greater operating efficiency

Methods of improving power factor

[Link] motors

-when its dc field is over excited it will take a current which leads to voltage by an angle which depends
on the amount of excitation

-the motor can either be run idle or be used to deliver mechanical power at constant speed

-it is common practice to have the motor connected to factory busbars

-two disadvantages associated with the synchronous motor or (condenser )are (1) its cost and (2) the
possibility of it falling out of synchronism with the resulting and interruption of the supply

-by increasing the dc excitation current the power factor can be made to lead and so affect the lag of
other machines

[Link] (static capacitors)

-can be used to improve the P.F by opposing the inductive effects

-they are connected in parallel to the load whole P.F is to be correction

-at a substation they are connected in bank /group

-if 3 phase load is used the banks are used and connected in delta .for 3 phase system ,delta
configuration is recommended

-to avoid danger of shock , discharge resistors are fitted

-the two foil electrodes are separated by a number of insulating tissues made from paper which is dried
and impregnated under vacuum of specially treated mineral oil

-to give the required capacity of a bulk of capacitor ,several small units are made into banks

-these banks are then placed in a steel that filled in treated mineral oil.