Roseville Secondary School Enugu

A project of Ikota Educational Foundation.

SECOND TERM 2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
CLASS: SS 1
EXPECTATIONS

[Link] YOUR NOTE OR PRINT AND SPIRAL BIND

[Link] GRADED ASSESSMENT OF 20 MARKS BEFORE CAT = 60%
[Link] : 40%
[Link]-GRADED ASSESSMENT
[Link] TO BE SUBMITTED IN WEEK 6
[Link] GRADED ASSESSMENT OF 20 MARKS BEFORE EXAM= 60%
[Link] 40%
[Link]: FOUR

NAME OF TEACHER: MISS EKERE, IRENE IDORENYIN

FOR ENQUIRIES: 09032806588
Email: Ireneh992@[Link]
THIRD TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC CONTENTS

PRODUCTION OF CHARGE
1 ELECTRIC CHARGE METHODS OF CHARGING A BODY
GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPR
CHARGE DISTRIBUTION ON CONDUCTORS
2 DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES LIGHTNING AND LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS
STORAGE OF CHARGES
CONCEPT OF FIELD
UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FIELDS
3 FORCE FIELDS
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
MAGNETIC FIELD
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE
4 ELECTRIC FIELDS POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC CURRENT
TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS AND MEASURING
5 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
INSTRUMENTS
RESISTIVE NETWORK - CONNECTIONS
OHM'S LAW
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF
6
THROUGH MATERIALS CONDUCTORS
INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND EMF OF A CELL
CHEMICAL ENERGY
HEAT ENERGY
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC
7 MECHANICAL ENERGY
CURRENT
SOLAR ENERGY
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
ELECTRICAL WORK
ELECTRICAL WORKDONE IN A
8 ELECTRICAL POWER
CIRCUIT
SALES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
DEFINITION OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
BASIC PARTS OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR AND THEIR
9 SOLARE THERMAL ENERGY FUNCTIONS

10 REVISIONS Revisions
11 EXAMINATIONS Examinations
12 CLOSING Closing
SS1 PROJECT– (FOR CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY)
PROJECT TEACHERS- (MRS IYIDA, MRS AMAECHI, MS UDUIJE AND MS IRENE)

TITLE: Exploring How Saline Water Generates Electricity and Its Biological and Environmental Links

OVERVIEW: This project explores how electricity can be generated using saline water, using simple lab
materials. It also investigates the connection between saltwater environments (aquatic habitats), organisms that
live in them (including salt-loving microorganisms), and how such natural environments relate to scientific
principles in physics and chemistry.

EXPECTIONS: the students are expected to for the steps below:

STEP-BY-STEP METHOD:

1. Prepare the Salt Solution: Fill a beaker with 200 mL of water. Add 2 tablespoons of salt and stir until fully
dissolved.

2. Insert Electrodes: Attach copper to one wire and zinc to another using crocodile clips. Place both electrodes
into the saltwater, but make sure they don’t touch each other.

3. Set Up Circuit: Connect the free ends of the wires to a multimeter to measure voltage. Optionally, connect to a
small LED bulb to see if it lights up.

4. Record Observations: Note the voltage produced. Observe if the LED glows. Record how changing the
concentration of salt or distance between electrodes affects the voltage.

5. Biological Connection Experiment: Add a pinch of soil or sample from pond water into the saline solution.

Check again if there's any change in voltage — this introduces microorganisms (halophiles or extremophiles).

Discuss how life can still exist in high-salinity aquatic habitats.

SUBJECT LINKS:

Biology: Aquatic and Terrestrial Habitats: Understanding how saltwater affects the distribution of life (e.g.,
marine organisms’ vs land organisms).
Microorganisms Around Us: Introducing halophiles (salt-loving microorganisms) and how they survive in saline
environments—linking salt concentration to biological adaptation.

Chemistry: Electrolytes and Salt Solutions: How salt dissolves in water to form ions (Na + and Cl–), which
conduct electricity.

Redox Reactions: Movement of electrons between electrodes in saline water.

Physics: Electric Current and Circuits: Using saltwater as a conductor, measuring current/voltage with a
multimeter.

Energy Conversion: Chemical energy to electrical energy.

MATERIALS: Two different metal electrodes (e.g., copper and zinc strips or nails), Beaker or plastic cup, Table
salt (NaCl), Distilled or tap water, Wires with crocodile clips, Multimeter or voltmeter, LED bulb (optional), A
piece of cardboard or plastic lid (for holding electrodes in place).

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Microorganisms in Saline Water: Halophilic bacteria that survive in salt
lakes and oceans can influence salt concentration and even affect the conductivity of the water.

Habitat Adaptation: Students learn how organisms in marine (aquatic) and land (terrestrial) habitats adapt to
salinity, connecting ecology to technology.

CHEMICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Salt Dissociation: Understanding how NaCl splits into ions (Na⁺ and Cl⁻) to
conduct electricity.

Electrode Reaction: Zinc undergoes oxidation and releases electrons, while copper acts as the cathode.

PHYSICS SIGNIFICANCE: Current Flow: Shows how a chemical reaction causes electron flow, generating
measurable voltage.

Circuit Understanding: Teaches about simple circuits, potential difference, and resistance.

POSSIBLE EXTENSION QUESTIONS:

1. What types of microorganisms can survive in saltwater, and why?

2. How does salt concentration affect electricity generation?

3. Could this model be scaled up to power devices sustainably?

GRADING CRITERIA (Total: 20 Marks)

CRITERIA DESCRIPTION MARKS

 1 Individual responses Clarity, confidence, 10 marks
on project defence and explanations of
day finding

2 Group work. Group work, level of 4 marks

teamwork, role
assigned to members,
cooperation
3 Results analysis by 3 marks
group
4 Paper work (soft 3 marks
copy will be
submitted through
email)
TOTAL MARKS
= 20
Rationale Behind the Project
This project explores how electricity can be generated using saline water, using simple lab materials. It also
investigates the connection between saltwater environments (aquatic habitats), organisms that live in them
(including salt-loving microorganisms), and how such natural environments relate to scientific principles in
physics and chemistry. In relation to the SDGs, we have
SDG 4-Quality education
SDG 3- Good Health and Well-being.
SDG 14 –life under water
DEADLINE: WEEK 6. (9TH-13TH OF JUNE 2025).
WEEK ONE

TOPIC: ELECTRIC CHARGES

Learning objective:

By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to;

1. Explain how charges are produced

2. Highlight and explain at least two methods of charging a body.
3. Explain how an electroscope stores charges.

ELECTRICITY/ELECTROSTATICS

Static electricity is defined as the study of electrostatics (i.e electric charges at rest). It is a type of electricity that
does not move from one point to another in the substance in which it is produced.

Electric charges are produced by either the loss or gain of electrons.

Types of Electrostatic Charges

A. Positive charge: When a neutral body loses some of its electrons, it becomes positively charged (i.e
electron deficit).
B. Negative charge: When a neutral body gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged (i.e having excess
electron).

An electrically neutral body is a body that has equal number of proton and electron.

The fundamental law of static electricity

This law states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other.

Production of Electrostatic Charges

There are three methods/ ways of producing electrostatic charges. They are;

1. Charging by friction
2. Charging by contact
3. Charging by induction

(1) Charging by Friction: This is the process of rubbing of one material over another leading to electron
transfer.

Examples of charging by friction

a. When a glass rod (or a cellulose acetate strip) is rubbed with silk, the glass rod loses some of its
electrons to the silk and becomes negatively charged while the silk becomes positively charged.
b. When an ebonite rod (hard rubber) or a polythene strip is rubbed with the fur, the ebonite rod gains
electron from the fur and becomes negatively charged while the fur becomes positively charged.
c. Moving vehicles become charged by friction due to the rubbing of air on the fast moving vehicle.
Thus, people complain of a slight electric shock as soon as their feet touch the ground.

N. B: Electrostatic charges produced by friction in a petrol tanker containing inflammable vapour may cause
spark/fire. Hence, to prevent this, a chain/metal strip is often left hanging from the rear (end) of such petrol tankers
can pass through the chain down to the earth where they are neutralized.
(2) Charging by Contact: This is the process by which a charged object/body touches a neutral object/body
and there is electron transfer.

(3) Charging by Induction: This is the process of placing a charged body near a neutral body and there is
electron transfer.

When charging a conductor by induction, it is supported by an insulating stand so that any charge acquired by the
conductor cannot travel to the ground.

Examples of charging by contact and induction

a. Charging a single sphere (conductor) by induction using a negatively charged body.

Step 1: The metal sphere is mounted on an insulating stand. i.e.

Metal sphere

Insulating stand
Step 2: A negatively-charged body brought close to the metal sphere will result in free electrons (negative
charge) repelled and proton (positive charge) attracted to it.
- -
--

+ -
Negatively + -
charged body

Step 3: By connecting the conductor to the earth/by touching with finger, the electrons flow to the earth.
i.e.
- -
--

+
+ Conductor
-

Earthen
Step 4: Upon removing the finger and separating the two bodies respectively, the metal sphere is
positively charged and redistribute itself. i.e.

+
+

b. Charging a two neutral sphere by induction and contact respectively using a negatively charged body.
Step 1: The two metal spheres are placed in contact and mounted on insulating stands. i.e.
 A B
Insulating stands
Step 2: A negatively-charged body brought close to the metal sphere A induces electron movement from
A to B. i.e.

- -
--
A B

Step 3: Sphere B is then separated from sphere A using insulating stands. Thus, A is positively charged
by induction while B is charged by contact. i.e.
- -
--

+ -
+ -
A B

Step 4: finally, the negatively charged body is removed and the charges redistribute themselves. i.e.

+ -
+ -
A B

N.B: When a neutral body is charged by contact, the neutral body will receive the same charge used to charge
it WHILE when a neutral body is charged by induction, the neutral body will receive an opposite charge to
that of the body used to charge it.

THE GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

The gold leaf electroscope is an instrument to detect if a body carries electric charge. It consists of a metal
plate/disc/cap and a rod insulated from a metal case with viewing glass windows as shown below;
 Metal disc/cap/plate

Insulator

Glass window

Thin gold leaf/foil

Earthen metal case

Figure: Gold leaf electroscope

N.B: Before the gold leaf electroscope can carry out its uses, it must be charged first.

Charging the gold leaf electroscope

The gold leaf electroscope can only be charged either

(i) by contact or
(ii) by induction.

Steps taken to Charge the gold leaf electroscope by induction

Step 1: A charged object/body is brought near the metal cap.

Step 2: With the charged body still close by, the cap is earthened temporarily.

Step 3: After breaking the earth connection, the charged object is withdrawn.

Step 4: Both the lower end of the rod and the gold leaf acquire like charges opposite in sign to that on the
charged object, causing the leaf to diverge since like charges repel. Thus, a diverged gold leaf of the gold leaf
electroscope shows/indicate a charged gold leaf electroscope while the sign on the gold leaf is determine by
the sign on the charged body used in charging it and also the method used.

Uses of the gold leaf electroscope

Besides using the gold leaf to detect if a body carries an electric charge, it can also be used in the following ways.

1. To determine the magnitude/quantity/amount of the charge carried by a body: Greater divergence or

collapse of the leaf of the charged gold leaf electroscope indicates a greater quantity of charges carried by
the body.
2. To distinguish between conductors and insulators: when a body is brought near the cap of the charged
gold leaf.
a. Rapid collapse of the gold leaf indicates that the body is a good conductor;
b. Gradual collapse of the gold leaf indicates a poor conductor;
 c. No change in divergence of the leaf indicates an insulator.
3. Determine the type/sign of the charge carried by the body: the table below summarizes how to determine
the type of the charge carried by a body.

s/n Charge on Charge brought near the cap Effect on leaf

electroscope

1 Negative Negative body Divergence increases

2 Positive Positive body Divergence increases

3 Negative Positive body Divergence decreases (collapse)

4 Positive Negative body Divergence decreases

5 Negative Uncharged(neutral) body Divergence decreases

6 Positive Uncharged(neutral) body Divergence decreases

It can be concluded from the table above that; “the true test of the type of charge on a body is increase in
divergence only”.

EVALUATION

1. Describe how a single neutral sphere can be charged by induction using a positively charged body.
2. Describe the steps involved in charging two neutral spheres by induction using a positively charged body.
3. The magnitudes of charges on two bodies are to be compared. Which of the following instruments would
be most suitable:
A. gold leaf electroscope B. capacitor C. the electrophorus D. ebonite rod
4. A short chain is usually attached to the rear side of a petrol tanker trailing behind it to ensure that.
WEEK TWO
TOPIC: DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES
Learning objective:
By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to;
1. Explain how charges are distributed on a conductor.
2. Write a short note on the operation of a lightning conductor.
3. Explain how charges are stored.
Distribution of electrostatic charges on a conductor
Charge distribution over a given surface depends on;
1. the nature and
2. shape of the surface under consideration.

The extent of distribution can be investigated by using a proof plane/electrophorus and a gold leaf electroscope.
By investigaton, it was found that:
a. There is no charge inside a hollow conductor.
b. The charge is only on the outside surface
c. Charges are observed to be more concentrated at sharp curves/edges or pointed ends.
d. Charges on spherical conductors are evenly distributed.
B

A
E C
D

Figure 1: Spherical conductor Figure 2: Irregular shape conductor

From figure 2 above, the charge is concentrated at A because; it is the sharpest point, while there is no charge at
C because it is a hole.

Lightning and Lightning Conductor

Lightning: it is a very bright flash/spark of electrostatic discharge which result from the sudden jump/flow of
opposite charges from cloud to cloud or from cloud to earth. Lightning is caused by a storm cloud which is highly
charged as a result of the rubbing action between the cloud and the air (charging by friction).
Lightning Conductor: A lightning conductor is a long metal (e.g. Copper) strip/rod/spikes with a pointed end
placed above a building and connected by a thick cable attached to a metal plate buried in the ground as shown
below;
Figure: Action of a lightning works on the principle of “point action” or “action at a point”
Point action: It is the process whereby neutral air around a sharp point of a conductor is ionized (i.e. broken into
positive and negative ions) due to the concentration of charges at such point as shown below;

Ionized
Positive
ions
Negative
ions
How a lightning conductor protects a building from lightning
During thunderstorm, cloud become heavily negatively charged, when a negatively charged cloud passes over the
area of a building, the sharp points of the rod/spikes gain induced charges opposite to those of the cloud causing
the ionization of the air around the spike due to point action. The positive ion induces on the spikes will neutralize
the attracted negative charges (electrons) from the cloud and prevent lightning.
However, if lightning still strikes the building, the excess electrons attracted to the spikes move down harmlessly
to the earth through the copper cable.
N.B: We hear thunderstorm after lightning because light (3 x 108 ms-1) travels faster than sound (340 ms-1) in air.
Storage of electrostatic charges
Electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing electrostatic charges. Thus, it can also be used to separate
charges. It produces electric charges by electrostatic induction as shown below;

Insulating handle

Metal disc
Seperated
Ebonite disc

Earthen
Figure: Action of electrophorus
The amount/quantity of charges stored can be increased by repeating the above process.

EVALUATION
1. Explain why the upper end of a lightning conductor is pointed
2. State two facts about acceleration due to gravity
3. When a positively charged conductor is placed near a candle flame, the flame spreads out as shown in the
diagram above. Explain this observation

Flame

Candle stick
WEEK THREE AND FOUR
TOPIC: DESCRIPTION AND PROPERTIES OF FIELDS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to;
1. Define field
2. Highlight at least three characteristics of field lines
3. State two properties of acceleration due to gravity.

Concept of Field
A field can be defined as a region of space under the influence of some physical agency such as gravitation,
magnetism and electricity.
There are two classes of fields – scalar fields and vector fields. A scalar field has only magnitude but no direction
e.g. Temperature, energy, density, etc. while a vector field has magnitude and direction e.g. gravitational field,
magnetic field, electric field, etc.
Gravitational field
Gravitational field is a region of space under the influence of gravitational force. The earth’s gravitational field
attracts every object in the earth and gives it and acceleration known as “acceleration due to gravity (g)”.
Facts/properties of acceleration due to gravity (g)
1. Its average value is about 9.81 ms-2.
2. It is uniform at a given place/location.
3. It varies slightly from place to place. It is minimum (9.78 ms -2) at the equator and maximum (9.83 ms-2)
at the poles.
4. It increases with latitude. Hence, it is less in Lagos than in London.

All objects (whatever their masses), when released from the same point in the absence of “air resistance” or
“friction” will fall to the ground at the same time for all bodies in same location e.g. if a stone and a feather is
released from rest at the same point in a vacuum (absence of air resistance or friction) will fall to the ground at
the same time.
Recall that;
F = mg
Where;
F is gravitational force
For m = 1(a unit mass)
F = g (this is known as the acceleration of free fall (g) due to gravity which is the force of attraction on a unit
mass.
The poles of a magnet: It is the portion of the magnet where its magnetic attraction appears to be strongest. A
bar magnet has two poles located at both ends of the magnet. They are the north and the south poles.
North Pole: It is the end of the magnet which points close to the geographical north direction when suspended
freely.
South Pole: It is the end of the magnet which points close to the geographical south direction when suspended
freely.
It is important to note that like/similar poles of magnets repel each other while unlike/dissimilar poles attract each
other. Also, magnetic monopoles so not exist as shown below;

Attraction Repulsion
S N S N S N N S

Figure: Attraction and repulsion between poles of magnets

Iron filings cling in heavy bunches around the poles of magnets as shown below;

Iron filings Iron filings

N S

Magnetic line of force: Magnetic line of force at a point is the path which an imaginary free N-pole will move if
placed at that point. Magnetic lines of force start from the North pole and end at the South pole. They do not cross
each other and are closest together where the magnetic field is strongest.
The magnetic field pattern near a magnet can be plotted by sprinkling iron filings on a paper placed on the magnet
or by using a plotting compass as shown below:

N S

Figure: Magnetic field pattern around a bar magnet.

When two magnets are placed with like poles facing each other, they repel and the points where the magnetic
fields completely neutralize each other is the “neutral point” as shown below;

Neutral point

N N

Practice exercise: Wassce 1992, no 40.

Electric Field
Electric field is a region of space under the influence of electric force. It is a vector quantity. The direction of an
electric field at any point is given by the direction of the force acting on a small positive charge placed at that
point.
Electric line of force/ electric field lines: It is the path which an isolated small positive charge would follow if
placed in the field. It is an imaginary line.
Uniform fields have straight field lines while variable fields have curved field lines.
Properties of Electric Field Lines
1. It starts only from a positive charge and end only on a negative charge
2. It indicates the direction of the electric field intensity
3. They do not cross each other
4. They are continuous in any region with free charges
5. They are crowded/closer where the electric field is strongest. Thus, electric field is proportional to the number
of lines crossing per unit area and perpendicular to the field.
6. The tangents/arrows at any point of a variable field shows the direction of the electric field at that point

Patterns/plots of electric field line

a. Electric field lines around isolated positive charge

b. Electric field lines around isolated negative charges

-
 c. Electric field lines around two like positive charges

+ +

d. Electric field lines around two unlike charges

+ -

e. Electric field lines between two parallel plates carrying unlike charges

EVALUATION
1. Draw electric field patterns around two negative charges placed near each other
2. Which of the following statements about magnetism is true?
A. a freely suspended bar magnet comes to rest in the geographic north-south direction.
B. like poles attract
C. iron filings will concentrate mainly round the ends of a bar magnet
D. lodestone is a non-magnetic material.
3. Which of the following are magnetic material
A. copper, steel and iron
B. iron, lead and brass
C. steel, glass and lead
D. nickel, steel and iron
 4. A charged ball is placed in contact with the inner wall of a hollow conducting sphere. The resulting electric
field is
A. inside the sphere
B. outside the sphere
C. inside and outside the sphere
D. on the surface of the ball.
5. The diagram below shows the field pattern around the poles of two magnets brought close to each other.
The poles are

A. N-N pole
B. S-S pole
C. N-S pole
D. S-N pole

6. Which of the following BEST explains why two solid bodies of different masses released from rest at the
same point simultaneously fall to the ground at the same time?
A. Because the two bodies are release in a vacuum
B. Because the two bodies have different masses
C. Because the two bodies are at rest
D. Because the two bodies have the same mass
7. When a feather and a coin are released in air from rest at the same point will they fall simultaneously to
the ground?
A. Yes
B. No
C. May be
D. Some times
8. The diagrams below show lines of force in various electric fields. In which of the diagrams would a
positive test charge experience less force as it moves from P to Q?
A. B. .Q
.Q
.P
.Q .P
C. D.
.Q
.P
.P

Use the pear shape conductor diagram below to answer question 8 and 9
Q

P R
S

Class work (12 minutes): A link will be sent to you for your class work
WEEK FIVE
TOPIC: PRODUCTION OF CONTINOUS CHARGES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to;
1. Explain the sources of production of electrical energy
2. Point out and state electric components and their uses.
3. Solve simple problems on resistance network.
4. Calculate how energy are consumed in Kwhr.

Sources/production of Electric current or Electrical energy or Electricity

Electric current can be produced by:
1. The use of cells
2. The use of thermocouples/thermopile
3. The use of generators e.g. piezo electric generators, electrostatic generators and dynamos
4. The use of solar cells/photocells
5. The use of hydropower e.g. dams
6. The use of windmills
7. The use of tidal waves
8. The use of gas turbines
9. The use of geothermal, etc.

Production of electric current/electricity from chemical energy (e.g. the use of cells)
A cell is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy. It consist of two dissimilar metals
(electrodes) separated by solutions of electrolyte. The positive electrode is known as the cathode while the
negative is the anode. A simple cell consists of a zinc plate (anode) and copper rod (cathode) immersed in a

Electron flow Conventional current

Zinc anode Copper cathode

Electrolyte (dilute H2SO4)

container filled with dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (H 2SO4). By convention, current flows from copper to zinc
while electrons move in opposite direction and when a bulb is connected between the terminals, it will light up
as shown below;
Two defects of simple cell
 a. Polarization: It occurs as a result of the formation of hydrogen gas bubbles around the copper plate and
an e.m.f is set up between hydrogen and copper which opposes the e.m.f between zinc and copper.
Polarization is prevented using depolarizers like manganesedioxide and potassiumdichromate
b. Local action: It occurs due to impurities in zinc plate (iron and carbon)causing zinc to dissolve in solution
when no current is supplied, local action can be prevented by amalgamation i.e. rubbing zinc plate with
mercury.

Practice exercise: state the two defects of the simple cell and how they can be prevented respectively.
Production of electric current/electricity from heat (e.g. the use of thermocouple)
Electric current can be produced from heat energy through a process known as thermoelectric effect which is
described below;
Very sensitive
Galvanometer mG
Copper
Iron

Hot junction
Figure: A thermocouple Hot water

Two different metallic wires are joined at one end to the terminals of a sensitive current detecting device (milli -
galvanometer) and they junction of the metals is put in hot water. This leads to flow of current along the wires
which is indicated by the milli-galvanometer.
The greater the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions, the greater the current flow/produced
Production of electric current/electricity from mechanical energy, (e.g. the use of generators and
dynamos)
When coils of insulated wires move across the magnetic field between two powerful magnets, current is induced
in the coil and the current is tapped using split-ring commutators to supply light to the head lamp.
Production of electric current/electricity from solar energy (e.g. the use of solar cells/photocells)
When sunlight falls on a photosensitive surface, electrons are produced whose movement constitute current. The
electrons move from region of higher potential (cathode) to the region of lower potential (anode) as shown below;

Electron flow Sunlight

Anode
Metal cathode

Micro ammeter

Figure: A photocell

Cell
 Production of electric current/electricity from dams, (e.g. the use of hydropower)
When large volume of water is held back by the dam, it forces itself all through the dam and through the fan belt
or gear system of the dynamo and generates electricity. Examples of dams in Nigeria are kanji dam, shiroro dam,
e.t.c.
Effects of Electric current
The effects of electric current are
i. Magnetic effect
ii. Chemical effect
iii. Heating or thermal effect

Direct Current Generation

There are two types of electric current - the direct current, dc and alternating current, ac. The direct current is
such that flows in one direction. Sources of direct current include:
 Solar Cells
 Electrochemical Cell - Electrochemistry
 Thermocouple - Thermochemistry

Solar Cells
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell consists of a rectangular or round piece of metal covered with a thin, transparent
layer of oxide as shown in Figure below. The light rays striking the oxide layer penetrates this layer and then the
junction between the oxide and the copper. The light rays force the electrons to flow across the junction, and so
generating electricity.

Photovoltaics are used in a wide variety of modern electrical and electronic devices. A few applications are:
(a) Spacecraft power supplies.
(b) Light meters.
(c) Automatic-operated switches.
(d) Burglar alarms.
(e) Cellphone chargers.
(f) Home lighting.
Although photovoltaics depend on light for their operation, exposure to heat may damage them.
Electrochemical Cell
Electrochemistry is the generation of electrical energy through chemical action of metals. Volta and Galvani
independently develop the first form of electrochemical cell, which consist of cloth soak in brine place between
dices of copper and zinc. Electrochemical cell can be classified into:
  Primary Cells
 Secondary Cells

In a cell, one metal plate or pole called positive pole is at a higher electrical potential than the other, which is
called negative pole. Primary Cell produces electrical energy through irreversible chemical reaction. Hence the
cells cannot be recharged. They include: Simple voltaic Cell, Daniel Cell, Leclanche Cell, Mercury - Cadmium
cell, and so on.
The Simple Voltaic Cell
The diagram below illustrates a zinc-acid cell also referred to as the simple cell. Simple cell consists of:
a) zinc as the negative electrode (anode),
b) copper as the positive electrode (cathode), and
c) Dilute Tetraoxosulphate (VI) (sulphuric) acid as the electrolyte.

When the metals are placed in the solution of dilute sulphuric acid, zinc possesses lesser potential than Copper.
Zinc atom donates electron to form Zn2+ ion. Zinc plate becomes the negative terminal. Electrons flow through
the connecting wire from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. Zn 2+ and H + ions move to the positive
plate. H+ ion accept an electron from the copper plate and then forms hydrogen gas at the copper plate. The e.m.f.
of this cell is 1.5V.
Defects of Simple Cell
1. Polarization: - This is the collection of hydrogen bubbles around the positive electrode (copper plate) and
eventually insulate the positive electrode from the solution. The hydrogen and the zinc in the cell also
form electromotive force, which opposes that between copper and zinc. Polarization of cells can be
reduced by adding a suitable chemical called depolarizer. Example is Manganese (iv) Oxide, MnO 2.
2. Local Action: - Impurities such as iron and lead embedded in the zinc electrode form small local cells.
The impurity acts as the positive electrode and zinc as the negative. The formation of these local cells
between the impurities and the zinc electrode is referred to as local action. It tends to wear the zinc
electrode. This happens even when the cell is not in use. Local action may be minimized by using pure
zinc, but zinc in its pure state is very expensive. Instead, a cheaper option is used alloying the
zinc electrode with mercury. This process is referred to as amalgamation and resultant alloy is called zinc
amalgam.
Daniel Cell
Daniel cell is an improved version of the simple cell. In the cell, zinc and copper metals are used as the
electrodes. Each of the metals is immersed into a solution of its ions. The two electrolytes, zinc sulphate
solution and copper(II) sulphate solution, are connected by a salt bridge or a porous pot. The functions of a salt
bridge or a porous pot are as follows:
(a) To prevent the two electrolytes from mixing.
(b) To allow the flow of the ions so that the electric circuit is completed.
A salt bridge is made from a piece of filter paper soaked in a saturated solution which does not react with the two
electrolytes. Thus it also acts as depolarizer. Examples are saturated potassium nitrate solution, saturated sodium
nitrate solution and dilute sulphuric acid. The salt bridge can also be a U-shaped tube that contains a saturated
solution. The emf of Daniel cell is 1.1V
Leclanché Cell
The most common type of primary cell in use is the Leclanché cell. In its wet form, it consists of a glass jar
containing a saturated solution of sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride solution, NH4Cl) as the electrolyte, a zinc
rod as the negative electrode, and a plate of carbon as the positive electrode.
Wet Leclanché Cell

A mixture of manganese dioxide and powdered carbon is pressed around the carbon rod and then enclosed in a
porous pot which the solution can soak through. The manganese dioxide acts as the depolarizer, while the
powdered carbon gives greater conductivity. The e.m.f. of the Leclanché cell is 1.5 V and the internal resistance
of a normal size cell is 1 Ohm. The wet cells are now going obsolete.
Dry Leclanché Cell
The dry Leclanché cell or simply dry cell is useful because it is compact and portable. It is constructed with the
same materials as the wet cell, except that the electrolyte is in the form of a paste or jelly. The zinc electrode is in
the form of a can, as shown below.
The chemical action is the same as in the wet cell and its e.m.f. is 1.5 V, too. Dry Leclanché cells are
manufactured in different sizes for use in torches, radios, remote control devices and other portable electronic
gadgets

Mercury Cells

The mercury cell is a type of dry cell consisting of a zinc or cadmium anode, mercuric oxide cathode and
potassium hydroxide as an electrolyte.

Advantage of Mercury Cell over Dry Cell

 Long shelf time of up to 10 years

 High capacity per size
 The constant voltage output of 1.35V
 Inexpensive to produce mercury cells with known technology
 Using a mercury cell, chlorine can be separated by reducing the impurities like oxygen, sodium chlorate,
and sodium hypochlorite.

Limitations

 Environment issues and economic issues – Inhalation of mercury vapour is harmful to the human body,
including organs like the kidney, nervous system, digestive system, eye, skin and immunity systems. Even
a small amount is very toxic to the human body.
 Dangerous to the development of children in utero and early stage of their lives.

Secondary Cells

Secondary cells are rechargeable units. When they are depleted, they can be replenished by charging. The most
common secondary cells are:
a) lead-acid cells which make the car battery.
b) alkaline cells, such as nickel-iron or nickel-cadmium cells.
c) lithium ion cell, which makes the cell phone battery and portable computer batteries are most recent.
Because they are rechargeable, they are used as standby and emergency power supplies for hospitals, factories,
schools, cellphones, tablets PCs and many others. They are also important for situations where higher currents
are required, for example, in motor vehicles, aircrafts and mobile equipment used in remote areas.
Lead Acid Accumulator
Lead acid accumulator consists of:
a) Electrolyte - Dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
b) Positive Pole - Lead Peroxide (Brown)
c) Negative Pole - Lead Plate (Grey)

The lead peroxide and lead are placed inside several grid plates made of a lead antimony compound. When the
accumulator is freshly made, it has emf of about 2-0V, and relative density (specific gravity) of 1.25. The
capacity of the accumulator is classified in ampere - hours, Ah. 20Ah will maintain a current of 20A in one
hour, current of 1A in 20hours and current 10A in 2hours.

Discharging of accumulator
When the battery is in use, lead sulphate is formed at both plates. The emf and the relative density of the acid
slowly decrease, and the accumulator is said to be discharging. The emf and the relative density should not be
allowed to fall below the figure recommended by the manufacturer. They should be topped up with distilled water.
and the relative density check with hydrometer.

Recharging of accumulator
An accumulator is recharge by passing current through it. Direct current supply is used for recharging an
accumulator. When accumulator is being recharge, lead sulphate is changed back to lead peroxide and lead.

Alkaline Accumulator (Nickel Iron, NiFe or Nickel Cadmium)

Alkaline accumulator has a longer life span than the lead acid accumulator. The emf of alkaline accumulator
when freshly made is 1.5V. The NIFE accumulator consist of:
a) Electrolyte - Potassium hydroxide, KOH
b) Positive Pole - Nickel hydroxide
c) Negative Pole - Iron Plate

Lithium-ion battery
A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery which uses the reversible reduction of lithium to
store energy. The negative electrode is graphite. The positive electrode is a metal oxide. The electrolyte is
a lithium salt in an organic solvent.
Li-ion is the predominant battery type used in portable consumer electronics and electric vehicles. It is also found
in military and aerospace applications. Compared to other rechargeable battery technologies, Li-ion batteries have
high energy density, low self-discharge, and no memory effect.
Electromotive Force, emf of a cell
Any system that is capable of setting up a potential difference across two terminals is said to be the source of
electromotive force. Electromotive force, is the energy per unit electric charge that is imparted by an energy
source, such as an electric generator or a battery. It can also be defined as the total energy it will deliver round
the circuit joined to it. Electromotive force of a source is ratio of the electrical power which it generates to the
current which it delivers.
𝑃
𝐸=
𝐼
It is measured in volts, V. Electromotive force has the same unit and dimension as voltage and potential
difference, pd. Sources of electromotive force include:
 Electrochemical Cells
 Thermocouple
 Solar Cells
 Electrical Generator

Internal resistance of a cell

The chemical compositions of a cell offer certain resistance to the current which is produced. This is known as
the internal resistance, r of the cell. Consider the cell in the diagram above. When the key K is open, no current
flows through the circuit. The cell is not delivering current and is said to be in open circuit. At this point, the
voltmeter reading, V = E. The emf of a cell is the potential difference across the cell when in open circuit.
When the key is closed and the cell is delivering current, the voltmeter reading, V = IR is less than the emf, E.
The energy not delivered to the external circuit is = E - V. This is known as the lost volt.
The total pd across the entire circuit is: 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
From the equation above, = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟 , since V = IR
Then the lost volt, 𝐸 − 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑟
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
Hence the efficiency of a cell is: 𝜀= × 100
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑝𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝜀= × 100
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑉
𝜀 = × 100
𝐸
𝐼𝑅
𝜀= × 100
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟
 𝑅
𝜀= × 100
𝑅+𝑟
Calculations
A battery of emf 2V and internal resistance of 1.5Ω is connected to an external resistance of 3Ω. Calculate, (a)
the current flowing through the circuit, (b) the pd across the 3Ω resistor (c) the lost volt (d) the efficiency of the
battery.
Solutions
𝐸
(a) The current, I through the circuit is: 𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
2
𝐼=
3 + 1.5
2
𝐼=
4.5
𝐼 = 0.444𝐴
(b) The pd, V across the 3Ω resistor is: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 = 0.444 × 3
𝑉 = 1.332𝑉
(c) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝐼𝑟
= 0.444 × 1.5
= 0.666𝑉
𝑅
(d) The efficiency of cell is: 𝜀= × 100
𝑅+𝑟
3
𝜀= × 100
3 + 1.5
3
𝜀= × 100
4.5
𝜀 = 66.7%
Cells connected in parallel

If a higher current is required than that which a single cell can supply, a number of cells are connected in
parallel. When connecting cells in parallel, all the positive terminals are interconnected and all the negative
terminals are connected to each other. Connecting the cells in parallel increases the current rating, but the voltage
remains the same if the cells are identical. If however, the cells have different emfs. then effective emf of the
connection is equivalent to the highest value of the arrangement.
1
When two cells are in parallel, the total emf is E, while the total internal resistance, r of the combination is: =
𝑟
1 1
+
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 𝑟 =
2

Cells connected in series

This is done to increase the effective voltage output of the battery. The battery emf output is the arithmetic sum
of emf of each individual cell.
When two cells are connected in series, and maintain current in the same direction, the total emf, E:
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
and the total internal resistance of the combination is: 𝑟 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
When cells are connected in series such that their current flow opposes each other, the net emf is: 𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
The effective internal resistance of the combination is: 𝑟 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Exercises

EVALUATION:
1. Explain the sources of production of electrical energy
2. Point out and state electrical components and their uses.
3. Two cells, each of emf 2v and internal resistance 0.5Ω are connected in series. They are made to supply
current to a combination of three resistors, one of the resistance 2Ω connected in series to a parallel
combination of two other resistors each of resistance 3 ohms. (a) Draw the circuit diagram and calculate
the current in the circuit; (b) potential difference across the parallel combination of the resistors; (c) losts
volts of the battery.
4. A lamp rated 100W 240V is lit for 5 hours. Calculate the cost of lighting the lamp if 1Kwh of electrical
energy cost 12 Naira.
WEEK SEVEN

TOPIC: SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTOR

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this lesson, the students should be able to;
1. Discuss how solar panels supply energy.
2. Highlight the types of solar panels
3. State the uses of solar panels
4. Define black body radiations
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using various technologies, such as
photovoltaics (PV), solar heating, concentrated solar power (CSP), and others. It is a renewable and sustainable
source of energy, as the Sun continuously emits vast amounts of energy that can be captured and converted into
electricity or used for heating purposes.
Photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar panels, convert sunlight directly into electricity using the
photovoltaic effect, while solar thermal collector capture the Sun's heat to produce steam, which can then be used
to generate electricity or for heating applications.
Solar energy offers numerous benefits, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, decreasing dependence on
fossil fuels, and providing energy independence. It can be utilized on various scales, from small-scale residential
installations to large utility-scale solar farms, making it a versatile and environmentally friendly energy source.
SOLAR COLLECTOR
A solar collector is a device or system designed to capture and absorb solar radiation for heating air, water, or
other fluids. It's a key component of solar thermal systems, which harness the Sun's energy for practical
applications such as space heating, water heating, and electricity generation.
Solar collectors come in various types, including flat-plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, and concentrating
collectors.
Flat-plate collectors: These are the most common type of solar collector. They consist of a flat, rectangular box
with a transparent cover (usually glass) and an absorber plate inside. The absorber plate is typically coated with
a dark material to maximize absorption of solar radiation. Fluid (usually water or antifreeze) circulates through
tubes or channels in the absorber plate, absorbing heat from the absorbed sunlight.
Evacuated tube collectors: In these collectors, individual glass tubes are used to contain the absorber plate and
the fluid. The space between the absorber plate and the outer glass tube is evacuated (i.e., air is removed), creating
a vacuum that reduces heat loss due to convection and conduction. Evacuated tube collectors are particularly
efficient in colder climates or under cloudy conditions.
Concentrating collectors: These collectors use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a smaller area,
typically onto an absorber or receiver. Concentrating collectors can achieve much higher temperatures than flat-
plate or evacuated tube collectors, making them suitable for applications such as solar power plants or solar
furnaces.
BASIC PARTS OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Transparent Cover: Usually made of glass or a transparent plastic material, the cover allows sunlight to enter
the collector while minimizing heat loss. It acts as a greenhouse, trapping solar radiation inside the collector to
heat the absorber plate.
Absorber Plate: Located beneath the transparent cover, the absorber plate is typically made of a thermally
conductive material, such as metal, and is coated with a dark, selective surface to maximize absorption of solar
radiation. When sunlight passes through the transparent cover, it is absorbed by the absorber plate, heating it up.
Fluid Circulation System: A network of tubes or channels runs through the absorber plate, carrying a heat
transfer fluid (such as water or antifreeze) that absorbs the heat from the absorber plate. The heated fluid then
circulates through the collector, transferring the captured heat to a storage tank or directly to the intended
application, such as space heating or water heating.
Insulation: Surrounding the sides and back of the collector, insulation material (such as fiberglass or foam) helps
minimize heat loss from the collector, ensuring that the captured solar energy is retained and utilized efficiently.
Frame and Casing: The collector assembly is housed within a sturdy frame and casing, which provide structural
support and protection from the elements. The frame also helps to secure the transparent cover and maintain
proper alignment of the components.
Inlet and Outlet Ports: These are openings in the collector through which the heat transfer fluid enters and exits
the circulation system. The fluid enters the collector at the inlet port, absorbs heat from the absorber plate as it
circulates through the collector, and exits at the outlet port, carrying the captured heat to the desired destination.

PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR

The principle operation of a flat-plate solar collector involves several steps that allow it to capture solar energy
and convert it into usable heat energy.
Absorption of Solar Radiation: The transparent cover of the flat-plate collector allows sunlight to pass through
and reach the absorber plate beneath it. The absorber plate is typically made of a thermally conductive material
with a dark coating to maximize absorption of solar radiation. When sunlight strikes the absorber plate, it heats
up, converting solar energy into thermal energy.
Transfer of Heat to Fluid: Within the absorber plate, a network of tubes or channels carries a heat transfer fluid,
such as water or antifreeze. As the absorber plate heats up, it transfers thermal energy to the fluid circulating
through these tubes.
Circulation of Heated Fluid: The heated fluid circulates through the collector via the fluid circulation system,
typically driven by natural convection or a pump. As it flows through the collector, the fluid continues to absorb
heat from the absorber plate, further increasing its temperature.
Transfer of Heat to Load: The heated fluid exits the collector through outlet ports and is directed to a storage
tank or directly to the intended application, such as space heating or water heating
Return of Cooled Fluid: After transferring its heat to the load, the now cooler fluid returns to the collector
through inlet ports to repeat the cycle.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR COLLECTOR
1. Domestic Hot Water Heating: Solar water heaters use flat-plate or evacuated tube collectors to capture
solar energy and heat water for household use. They are often used in homes, hotels, and other residential
or commercial buildings to provide hot water for bathing, laundry, and other domestic purposes.
2. Space Heating: Solar thermal systems can be integrated into buildings to provide space heating during
cold weather.
3. Swimming Pool Heating: Solar pool heaters use solar collectors to heat water in swimming pools,
extending the swimming season and reducing the need for conventional heating methods, such as gas or
electric heaters.
4. Process Heat: Solar collectors can provide heat for industrial processes in various sectors, including food
and beverage manufacturing, textile production, and chemical processing. They can be used to preheat
water or other fluids used in manufacturing processes, reducing energy costs and greenhouse gas
emissions.
5. Solar Cooling: Solar thermal systems can be combined with absorption chillers to provide solar cooling
for buildings. Flat-plate collectors or concentrating collectors capture solar energy to power the absorption
chiller, which cools water or another refrigerant for air conditioning purposes.
6. Agricultural Applications: Solar collectors can be used in agriculture for tasks such as crop drying,
greenhouse heating, and water desalination. They provide a sustainable and cost-effective way to meet the
energy needs of agricultural operations while reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
7. Solar Cooking: Solar cookers and solar ovens use solar collectors to harness sunlight for cooking food.
8. Solar Power Plants: Large-scale solar thermal power plants use concentrating solar collectors to generate
electricity. These plants concentrate sunlight onto a receiver to produce high-temperature heat, which is
then used to generate steam and drive turbines to generate electricity.

BLACK-BODY RADIATION
Black-body radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a perfect absorber and emitter of energy,
known as a black body. A black body is an idealized physical object that absorbs all incident radiation, regardless
of frequency or angle of incidence, and emits radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
Characteristics of black-body radiation are:
Wavelength Distribution: The intensity of radiation emitted by a black body varies with wavelength according
to Planck's law. At any given temperature, a black body emits radiation across a continuous spectrum of
wavelengths, with the peak intensity shifting toward shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) as the temperature
increases.
Temperature Dependence: The total amount of radiation emitted by a black body increases with temperature.
As the temperature of a black body rises, both the total intensity of radiation emitted and the peak wavelength of
the emission shift to shorter wavelengths, according to Wien's displacement law.
Universal Nature: Black-body radiation is a universal phenomenon that applies to all objects at a given
temperature, regardless of their composition or physical properties. While real objects may not perfectly exhibit
black-body behavior, many objects approximate it closely enough under certain conditions.
EVALUATION
1. Discuss how solar panels supply energy.
2. Highlight the types of solar panels
3. State the applications of solar panels
4. What is black body radiation?
5. How does temperature affect the wavelength and intensity of black body radiation?