Motion

Distance and Displacement

Motion: When a body changes its position according to its surroundings, we say it is
in motion.
Rest: When a body does not change its position according to its surroundings, we say
it is at rest.
Distance: Distance is the total length a moving object covers, irrespective of the
direction of motion.
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Distance is denoted by “d”.
 The S.I unit is meter “m”.
Displacement: Displacement is the
distance measured in a straight line and in
a specific direction.
 In displacement both magnitude and
direction are important.
 Displacement is a straight line distance.
 It is the shortest path between the two points.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Distance is denoted by “s”.
 The S.I unit is meter “m”.

Explanation of distance and displacement by different figures

 Distance-time graph
1)
i. The line is horizontal.
ii. The slope is zero.
iii. The speed is zero.
2)
i. The line is straight.
ii. The slope is constant.
iii. The speed is constant.
3)
i. The line is curved.
ii. The slope is increasing.
iii. The speed is increasing.
4)
i. The line is curved.
ii. The slope is decreasing.
iii. The speed is decreasing.
5)
i. The line is curved in the negative direction.
ii. The slope is decreasing at a decreasing rate.
iii. The speed is decreasing at a decreasing rate.
iv. Deceleration
6)
i. The line is curved.
ii. The slope is decreasing at an increasing
rate.
iii. The speed is decreasing at an increasing
rate.
iv. Deceleration
7)
i. The line is straight in negative direction.
ii. The slope is decreasing at a constant rate.
iii. The speed is decreasing at a constant rate.
iv. Deceleration
Speed:
1) The rate of change of distance is called speed.
2) It is a scalar quantity.
3) Its unit is m/s.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑
4) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
= 𝑡𝑡
Velocity:
1) The rate of change of displacement is called velocity.
2) It is a vector quantity.
3) Its unit is m/s.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠
4) 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡
Acceleration:
1) The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
2) It is a vector quantity.
3) Its unit is m/s2.
4) In a constant circular motion, the velocity is uniform/ constant by the direction is
continuously changing, therefore we can say that acceleration is producing.
𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣−𝑢𝑢
5) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= ∆𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡2−𝑡𝑡1
v is the final velocity, u is the initial velocity, t2 is the final time, and t1 is the initial
time.
Deceleration: The acceleration is negative when velocity is decreasing. This negative
acceleration is called deceleration.
Uniform Acceleration:
If the rate of change of velocity is constant, it is uniform acceleration.
Non-Uniform Acceleration
If the rate of change of velocity is not constant, it is non-uniform acceleration.
Uniform acceleration Non-uniform acceleration
Time Velocity Acceleration Time Velocity acceleration
2
i. 1 2 2/1 = 2m/s i. 1 2 2/1 = 2m/s2
ii. 2 4 4/2 = 2m/s2 ii. 2 6 6/2 = 3m/s2
iii. 3 6 6/3 = 2m/s2 iii. 3 15 15/3 = 5m/s2
iv. 4 8 8/2 = 2m/s2 iv. 4 23 23/4 = 5.75m/s2
Free fall: The motion of an object under the influence of gravity only is called free fall.
When an object is released near the surface of the Earth, it falls under the influence of
gravity. This is known as free fall.
The acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to gravity is denoted by “g” and its value is
“9.8 m/s2”.
This is true in the absence of air resistance.
Terminal velocity:
The constant maximum velocity that is attained and maintained by an object while falling
through a resistive medium is called “terminal velocity”.
 Speed-time graph
1)
i. The line is horizontal.
ii. The slope is zero.
iii. The acceleration is zero.

2)
i. The line is straight.
ii. The slope is constant.
iii. The acceleration is constant.
3)
i. The line is curved.
ii. The slope is increasing.
iii. The acceleration is increasing.
4)
i. The line is curved.
ii. The slope is decreasing.
iii. The acceleration is decreasing.
5)
i. The line is curved in the negative direction.
ii. The slope is decreasing at a decreasing rate.
iii. The acceleration is decreasing at a decreasing
rate.
iv. Deceleration
6)
i. The line is curved.
ii. The slope is decreasing at an increasing rate.
iii. The acceleration is decreasing at an increasing
rate.
iv. Deceleration
7)
i. The line is straight in negative direction.
ii. The slope is decreasing at a constant rate.
iii. The acceleration is decreasing at a constant
rate.
iv. Deceleration
 Force
 It is the agent that produces on tends to produce change in state of motion or rest.
 Force is denoted by “F”.
 It is a vector quantity.
 It's unit in Newton “N”.
 Force can be measured by a Spring balance.

 How to identify the direction of force?

o The direction of force = direction of acceleration.
Effects of force:
a. It changes Speed/ velocity
b. It changes state (rest to motion or motion to rest)
c. It can change shape, size, length, and direction.
Types of force:
There are two types of force;
1) Contact force.
2) Non-contact force.
1) Contact force:
This is the force that acts between two objects, when they physically touch each other.
Examples:
i. Pushing and pulling force.
ii. Normal reaction force: It is a force that acts on an object when it is in contact with a
surface.
iii. Tensions: It is a force in string, spring, rubber band, or wire when stretched or
compressed.
iv. Friction: It is a force that opposes the resistive motion between two surfaces in
contact.
Drag force:
o Drag force is a force that stops or tries to stop motion through a fluid.
o Air resistance and liquid friction, which resists or slows down our motion is called
drag force.
o Speed increases, drag also increases.
o Surface area increases, and drag also increases.
Viscous force: The resistive force that acts on an object as it moves through a liquid.
Up thrust force: It is also called buoyant force. It is the upward push of a liquid or gas
exerted on an object immersed in a fluid.
 2) Non-Contacting force:
This is the force that acts between two objects that are not physically touching each other.
Examples:
i. Gravitational force (weight): Gravitational force is due to the gravitational field
strength of the Earth. It is always directed downward.
ii. Electrostatic force: The force which pulls or pushes the charged object in
electrostatic force.
iii. Magnetic force: The force that pushes or pulls the magnet or magnetic materials is
called magnetic force.
Balance and unbalanced force
Balance Force:
o The forces acting on an object are balanced if the resultant forces are zero
o When forces are balanced the acceleration is zero.
o Object at rest will remain at rest and object in motion will remain in motion.
Un Balance Force:
o The forces acting on an object are balanced if the resultant forces are not zero
o When forces are balanced the acceleration is not zero.
o Object changes the state when un balance force acts.
Resultant force:
The resultant force (or net force) is a single force that has the same effect as all the other
forces acting on an object combined.
Examples.
 Newton’s laws of motion:
a. Newton’s first law of motion: Every object will continue its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless an unbalanced force or resultant force acts on it to
change its state.

b. Newton’s second law of motion:

o When an unbalanced force acts on an object the acceleration is produced in the
direction of force.
o The acceleration is directly proportional to the unbalanced force.
Fαa Where a = acceleration.
F = ma m = mass and F= force

c. Newton’s third law of motion.

Every action has a reaction, this action and reaction are always equal but in opposite
directions.
The important point of 3rd law of motion:
a. Actions and reactions are two Forces, which are opposite in direction.
b. These forces are equal.
c. Two different objects apply these forces.

Free body diagram of Forces acting on an

object:

Fw or Fg= weight,
FT = Tension,
FN = normal force,
Ff = Friction force
 Friction
o Friction is a force that resists the motion of an object between the two surfaces.
o Friction converts Kinetic energy into thermal energy.
Negative effects of friction:
⇒ It reduces the efficiency of engine power.
⇒ It causes the wear and tear of moving parts in engines and machinery.
Positive effects of friction:
⇒ It is needed for walking, holding a pen, or other objects.
⇒ It is used in braking pods to slow down objects.
Reduction of negative effects:
To reduce friction, we use wheel, ball bearing, lubricants, and polish.

Effects of friction on the motion of the vehicle.

Thinking distance: The distance covered before applying brakes is called thinking
distance.
Braking distance: The distance covered after applying brakes till it comes to the state
of rest.
Total stopping distance: Stopping distance (S.D) is the sum of thinking distance (T.D)
and braking distance (B.D).
S.D = T.D + B.D

How tyre surface and road condition affects thinking distance and braking
distance.
a. Condition of the tyres:
 Thinking distance is not affected by the condition of the tyre.
 Braking distance is affected by the condition of tyres.
 Braking distance decreased by the new tyres or having good treads of the
tyres.
 Braking distance increased by the old tyres because they are worn out due to
which have less friction.
b. Condition of the road:
 Thinking distance is not affected by the condition of the road.
 The braking distance is reduced on rough and dry roads and increases on wet
roads.
c. Speed:
 Thinking distance is increased with the speed.
 The braking distance increases with the speed.
d. Load:
 Thinking distance is not affected by the condition of the load.
 The heavier the vehicle. The longer the distance it will take to stop.
e. Condition of the driver:
 Thinking distance is affected by the condition of the driver.
 If the driver has taken some alcohol or he is tired or has used some drug, it
will affect the thinking distance and he cannot calculate the braking distance
properly.
 Elastic Deformation
Elasticity or Elastic behavior: Ability to regain the
original shape when force or load is removed.

Extension: The increase in length when force is applied on

the object is called extension.
Extension =x= x2 – x1
Where x is the extension, x2 is the final extension, x1 is the
initial extension.
The extension can also be denoted by “e”.

Limit of Proportionality: The point beyond which extension is

not directly proportional to the load.

Elastic Limit: Elastic limit is the point at which the spring will
deform permanently.

Elastic body: The body that regains its original shape when a
deforming force stops to act. E.g. rubber band.

Hook’s Law: The load and extension are directly proportional

to each other within an elastic limit.
Fα x
F = k x.
Where k is the spring constant and k=F/x
Spring constant: Force per unit extension is called spring constant.
⇒ The unit of spring constant “k” is N/m or Nm-1.
⇒ The value of “k” determined the stiffness (hardness) of the
body. The greater the value of “k”, the greater the stiffness or
hardness of the body.
⇒ k= 10 N/m means 10 N force required for 1m extension.

Graph
P stands for the limit of proportionality and “E” stands for elastic
limit.

Spring attached in series:

Each spring experiences a pull from the weight of the mass it
supports. Therefore, each spring extends the same amount as an
individual spring would.

Spring attached in parallel:

A parallel combination supports the weight. The members share the
load and are, therefore, not stretched as much as they would be if
they were on their own supporting the load.

We use the words Load (L), force (F), and Weight (w) for “F”.
We use the word Extension (e). or increase in length (x).
 Circular Motion
Circular Motion:
When an object is moving in a circular path, then the object is in circular motion. e.g. motion
of the Earth around the Sun, and the gravitational forces acting on it. In the motion of
electrons around the nucleus, the electrostatic force acts on it.
Circular motion has a curved path, a fixed point (center), and a fixed distance from the center
(radius).
Hence circular motion is the motion of an object along a curved path, which has a fixed point
at the center of the path and has fixed distance from the center.
When a body is moving in a circular path two forces act on it.
1) Centripetal Force.
2) Centrifugal Force.
When these forces are balanced the body moves in a circular path.
Centripetal Force: The object moves in a circular path due to a constant force acting
towards the center of the circle, which is called the centripetal force.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
FC = 𝑟𝑟
ac = v2/r and F=ma

Centripetal force is directed towards the center of the circle and there is an angle of 900
between direction of motion and force.
Factors on which the centripetal force depends.
The centripetal force will increase;
i. If the mass of the object increases.
ii. If the speed of the object increases.
iii. If the radius of the circle reduces.
Note: when a body is moving with uniform velocity in a circular path then the acceleration is
produced because it is changing its direction continuously in a circular path.
Dependence of centripetal force.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
Fc = 𝑟𝑟
Mass Velocity Radius Centripetal force
Increase Constant Constant Increase
Constant Increase Constant More increase (velocity v2)
Constant Constant Increase Reduce
Constant Constant Constant Constant
 Turning Effect of Force
Moment of Force: The moment of force is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force.
The SI unit is Nm.
Moment of force = Force x perpendicular distance from the pivot.

=Fxd
It is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction.
When more than one force acts in one direction, their overall turning effect is just the sum of
their moment.
Dependence of Moment Of Force: It depends on two factors i.e. force and distance from the
pivot.
The larger the force, the larger the moment of force, the larger the distance, the larger the
moment of force.
Principle of Moment: The principle of moment states that “for an object in equilibrium, the
sum of the clockwise moments about any point (acting as a pivot) equal the sum of the
anticlockwise moment about the same point.
Pivot: Pivot is a joint about which only rotation is allowed.
Centre of Gravity:
The center of gravity of an object is defined as the point through which its whole weight
appears to act for any orientation of the object.
How to find the center of gravity of an irregular shape:
1) Make three holes near the edge of the lamina. The
holes should be as far apart as possible from one
another.
2) Suspend the lamina through one of the holes using
a pin. Hang a plumb line on the pin in front of the
lamina.
3) When the plumb line is steady draw a line on the
lamina over the plumb line.
4) The point of intersection of the lines is the position
of the center of gravity.

Stability: Stability is closely related to an object's center of gravity. It refers to the ability of
the object to regain its original position after it has been tilted slightly. The stability of an
object can be improved by lowering the center of gravity and increasing its base area.
 Momentum
 Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of a body.
 It is denoted by “p”.
 Its unit is kg m/s or N-s.
 It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the direction of velocity.
 If the body is heavy or moving with a great velocity, has a large momentum.
 Momentum = mass x velocity.
 p = m x v.

Impulse:
 It is defined as the product of force and the time for
which the force was exerted.
 Impulse = force x time.
 Impulse = F x t
 Its unit is Ns.
 Impulse is also defined as the change in momentum.
 Impulse = change of momentum.
o F x t = mv – mu.
= m (v - u).
= m ∆v.
Force in terms of momentum:
o The rate of change of momentum is called the force.
o F = ∆p / ∆t.
Principle of conservation of momentum:
When two or more bodies act on one another, as in a collision, the total momentum of the
bodies remains constant, provided no external forces act (e.g. friction).

Total Momentum before collision = Total Momentum after collision

 Center of gravity
• The single point on which the entire mass/ weight is considered to be acting.
• A uniform object’s center of gravity is in the middle of the object.
• The object will always balance around its center of gravity.

Stability:
• The ability of an object to regain its original position after it has been tilted
slightly.
• An object will be stable if its center of gravity is lower.
• The stability of an object can be improved by lowering the center of gravity and
increasing the base area of an object.
• If a vertical line is drawn downward from its center of gravity and falls outside its
base area, an object will topple over.